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fnv 


A  PRACTICAL  MANUAL 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND  MINING, 


A  PKACTICAL  MANUAL 


OF 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND  MINING: 

COMPRISING 

SUGGESTIONS  AS  TO  THE  LOCALITIES  AND  ASSOCIATIONS 
OF  ALL  THE  USEFUL  MINERALS, 

FULL  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  THE  MOST  EFFECTIVE  METHODS  FOR  BOTH  THE 

QUALITATIVE  AND   QUANTITATIVE  ANALYSES  OF 

EACH  OF  THESE  MINERALS, 


HINTS  UPON    THE  VARIOUS    OPERATIONS    OF    MINING,  INCLUDING 
ARCHITECTURE    AND    CONSTRUCTION. 


BY 

PROF.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.D., 

AUTHOR  OF  "  THE  METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL."  AND   "  THE  PROSPECTOR'S  FIELD-BOOK 

AND  GUIDE." 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SEVENTY-ONE  ENGRAVINGS. 
SECOND  EDITION-^gSESSMiD  ENLARGED. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 
810  WALNUT  STREET. 

LONDON: 

E.  &  F.  N.  SPON, 
125  STRAND. 

1895. 


. 


jiT 


COPYRIGHT  BY 

HENEY  CAKEY  BAIED  &  CO., 
1895. 


PRINTED  AT  THE 

WICKERSHAM  PRINTING  HOUSE, 

53  and  55  North  Queen  Street, 

LANCASTER,  PA.,  U.  S.  A. 


PUBLISHER'S  PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  death  of  Dr.  Osborn,  more  than  a  year  ago,  has  caused 
to  be  devolved  upon  the  Publisher  the  duty  of  preparing  the 
preface  to  this  revised  edition  of  his  MINERALS,  MINES  AND 
MINING. 

About  a  year  before  his  death,  Professor  Osborn  revised  a 
copy  of  the  book  and  placed  it  in  the  hands  of  the  publishers 
for  use  when  a  new  edition  might  be  called  for.  The  un- 
avoidable delay  in  its  publication  has  made  it  necessary  that 
the  statistics  should  be  brought  up  to  date,  and  this  has  been 
carefully  done,  together  with  an  elaboration  of  the  divisions, 
Nickel,  Manganese  and  Aluminium,  by  a  thoroughly  com- 
petent editor,  under  the  personal  supervision  of  the  publisher ; 
both  editor  and  publisher  giving  their  best  time  and  attention 
to  the  passage  of  the  volume  through  the  press.  They  have 
earnestly  aimed  to  do  entire  justice  to  the  late  eminent 
author,  although  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  work  has 
been  so  well  done  as  if  he,  with  his  profound  knowledge  of  the 
subjects  treated,  had  been  alive  to  direct  it  for  himself,  and  in 
his  own  way. 

Henry  Stafford  Osborn  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  August 
17,  1823,  and  died  in  New  York  City,  February  2,  1894.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1841,  and 
at  the  Union  Theological  Seminary,  New  York,  in  1846.  He 
studied  at  Bonn,  Germany,  and  at  the  Polytechnic  Institution 
of  London,  having  gone  abroad  in  1843  or  1844.  Before  the 


vi  PUBLISHER'S  PREFACE. 

Civil  war  he  held  the  chair  of  natural  science  in  Roanoke 
College,  Va.,  and  in  1866  accepted  a  professorship  in  Lafay- 
ette College.  Leaving  Lafayette  in  1870,  he  became,  in  1871, 
professor  in  Miami  University,  at  Oxford,  Ohio,  where  he  re- 
mained until  that  institution  was  closed  in  1873.  In  1865  he 
received,  from  Lafayette  College,  the  degree  of  LL.D. 

In  1869  he  published  "  The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel, 
Theoretical  and  Practical,"  an  8vo.  volume  of  nearly  1,000 
pages,  the  success  of  which  was  immediate  and  pronounced. 
In  1888  appeared  the  first  edition  of  "  A  Practical  Manual  of 
Minerals,  Mines,  and  Mining,"  and  in  1892,  "  The  Prospec- 
tor's Field  Book  and  Guide."  All  of  these  books  have  proved 
acceptable  to  those  for  whom  they  were  especially  prepared, 
and  have  found  a  ready  market. 

The  health  of  Dr.  Osborn  having  failed  while  he  was  the 
pastor  of  a  church  in  Millville,  Ohio,  he  determined  to  devote 
his  attention  to  literary  and  scientific  pursuits  and  to  travel ; 
and,  in  1858,  he  spent  much  time  in  visiting  and  making 
surveys  of  famous  localities  in  Syria,  Palestine,  Egypt,  and 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean.  These  travels  and  re- 
searches resulted  in  the  publication  of  numerous  maps  and 
books,  illustrative  of  those  countries. 

Personally  Dr.  Osborn  was  earnest,  enthusiastic,  interesting, 
amiable,  intensely  thorough  and  pre-eminently  just.  The 
friendship  between  him  and  his  publisher  commenced  in 
1868,  and  remained  unbroken,  even  for  a  single  hour,  up  to 
the  end  of  his  useful  and  blameless  life ;  and  this  friendship 
will  always  remain  among  the  brightest  and  best  recollections 
in  the  long  career  of  the  undersigned  as  a  publisher. 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD. 
PHILADELPHIA,  July  25,  1895. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


THE  object  of  this  manual  is  to  place  before  the  practical 
mineralogist  and  miner  all  the  important  help  which  may  be 
derived  from  the  present  state  of  knowledge  as  it  bears  upon 
the  departments  of  useful  mineralogy,  mining,  and  mines. 
We  have  intended  to  make  use  of  the  best  results,  not  only  of 
experiment,  but  of  successful  work,  and,  therefore,  only  the 
best  methods  have  been,  in  most  cases,  presented.  Neverthe- 
less, it  frequently  happens  that  a  method  adopted  in  one  con- 
dition, or  under  certain  circumstances,  must  be  modified 
under  other  conditions,  and  there  may  be  sound  reasons  for 
adopting  another  method  to  attain  the  same  result.  Hence, 
where  it  is  difficult  to  pronounce  upon  one  method,  we  have 
given  an  alternative. 

In  chemical  analyses  and  reductions,  especially  in  the 
methods  of  detection  or  determination,  we  have  confined  our- 
selves to  that  method  which  was  simplest  in  treatment.  In 
practical  and  most  technical  work  much  depends  upon  the 
manipulation — indeed,  more  depends  upon  the  neatness  and 
the  judgment  of  the  chemist  than  upon  his  method  or  the 
process  he  has  adopted. 

This  work  is  divided  into  two  principal  parts  and  one  sub- 
ordinate. The  FIRST  PART  treats  of  the  useful  minerals — their 
physical  properties,  geologic  positions,  local  occurrence,  and 
associations ;  their  methods  of  chemical  analysis  when  we 


Vlll  PREFACE. 

wish  to  determine  their  natures  and  richness ;  their  furnace  or 
dry  assay  ;  and  their  probable  present  commercial  values  and 
uses ;  together  with  such  cautions  which  long  experience  has 
proved  that  the  miner  and  practical  mineralogist  should  ob- 
serve in  his  researches.  The  SECOND  PART  describes  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  excavating  and  of  timbering.  It  includes  all 
brick  and  masonry  work  during  driving,  lining,  bracing,  and 
other  operations  included  in  general  or  special  mining  archi- 
tectural work. 

Following  Part  II.,  the  practical  work  of  digging  and 
boring  artesian  and  other  deep  wells  is  fully  described,  with 
notices  of  the  tools  used  and  how  to  provide  for  the  accidents 
and  difficulties  sometimes  met  with  in  these  operations. 


OXFORD,  OHIO, 

December  15,  1887. 


CONTENTS. 


PAET  I. 

MINING   MINERALOGY,  AND   ECONOMIC  TREATMENT  AND  HISTORY  OF 
THE   USEFUL   MINERALS. 


MINING  MINERALOGY. 

PRELIMINARY  PRINCIPLES  AND  PREPARATIONS. 

PAGE 

Requirements  for  the  successful  study  of  mining  mineralogy  and  for  a  correct 
recognition  of  minerals         .         .         .         .         .         .         .•        ,     :;  .  1 

Systems  of  crystallization  ;  Examples  of  crystallization    .         .         ...       2 

Definition  of  crystallization ;  Illustration  of  the  importance  of  an  acquaint- 
ance with  the  principles  of  crystallization   .         .         .         .         .         .         .3 

Definition  of  hardness  and  of  cleavage     ........       4 

Definition  of  fracture  and  of  streak  ;  Definition  of  specific  gravity  and  method 
for  its  determination     .  .         .         ....         ....      -5 

Rule  for  finding  the  specific  gravity  ;  Skill  in  determining  the  specific  gravity 
of  minerals  acquired  by  practice  .         .         .         .....         .         .6 

Method  for  determining  the  bulk  or  volume  of  the  hand        .  .         .         .         .     .$ 

Precautions  when  great  accuracy  is  required   in  determining  the  specific 
gravity          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .8 

Experiment  illustrating  the  variations  in  the  specific  gravity  at  different  tem- 
peratures     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ....        .9 

Method  of  weighing  a  block  of  stone,  marble,  etc.,  without  scales   ...     10 
The  blow-pipe  and  the  philosophy  upon  which  its  action  depends;  Unneces- 
sary complications  of  the  blow-pipe  ;  Preparation  of  charcoal  for  blow-pipe 
use        .         .         .         .  .      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .11 

Sources  of  heat  for  blow-pipe  practice  ;  Constitution  of  the  flame  of  a  candle, 
or  of  gas,  or  of  an  oil  lamp  ;  Oxidizing  flame        ......     12 

Reducing  flame  and  mode  of  producing  it;  Production  of  the  oxidizing  flame     13 
Materials  for  blow-pipe  practice ;  Common  sal-soda  ;  Borax;  Platinum  wire  ; 
Microcosmic  salt ;  Hard  glass  tubing   ........     14 

Preparatory  practice  with  the  blow-pipe  and  hints  for  the  same ;  Trouble 

(ix) 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGK 

from  saliva ;  Avoidance  of  too  large  a  bead  ;  Method  of  learning  the  art  of 
blowing        ........         .....     15 

Hints  for  practice  with  the  blow-pipe ;  Experiment  with  common  litharge ; 

The  lead  orange  color  ;  Experiments  with  metallic  zinc  and  tin  .     16 

Water  of  crystallization  ;  Burning  or  oxidizing  of  organic  matter  ;  Character- 
istic color  of  manganese  ;  Changes  in  the  color  of  the  bead  by  heating  in 
the  inner  and  in  the  outer  flames          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .It 

Removal  of  the  bead  ;  Use  of  lenses  ;  Caution  in  the  reduction  of  a  metal       .     18 
Magnetism   as  a  help  in  determining  minerals ;  Cupellation  ;  The  cupel  and 
its  use  .............     19 

The  muffle ;  Preparation  of  a  cylindrical  sheet-iron  stove  as  a  substitute  for  a 
clay  furnace ;  Manipulation  of  a  very  small  assay  with  the  blow-pipe  ;  In 
review        ,  .       •  .        .         .         .         .         .'        .        .         ,         .         .         .20 

Importance  of  actual  experiment ;  Scales  for  specific  gravity;  Study  of  crystal 
forms  from  actual  specimens ;  The  elements         ^        ,         .         .         .         .21 

The  most  important  fact  connected  with  the  elements  ;  Unchangeable  com- 
bining number  or  "  atomic  weight"  of  the  elements  ;  Abbreviations  of  the 
names  of  elements  by  symbols      .         .         .         .         »         .         .         .         .     22 

Table  of  combining  weights  of  elementary  bodies    .         .         .         r~~  .         .     23 
Note  on  the  table ;  Practical  use  of  the  table  of  atomic  weights ;  Method  of 
computing  the  sought  elements  from  the  found    .         ,         ;      .  .         .         .24 

Groups  of  compounds       .         .         . 26 

Characteristics  of  the  various  groups  of  metallic  oxides        •..'."        .         .27 
The  reagents;  Water;  Alcohol        ....    .     ^         .-       V        .         .     28 

Hydrogen  :  Chlorine  and  method  of  preparing  it,  illustrated   .         .         .         .29 

Use  of  chlorine  as  a  gas  .        ;         .         ...         .         .         .         .     30 

Bromine  and  iodine  ;  Forms  in  which  bromine  is  used    ...         .         .31 

Preparation  of  bromine  ;  Oxygen  and  its  preparation       ,         .         .         .         .32 

Iron ;  Zinc :  Tin ;  Hydrochloric  acid        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     3& 

Nitric  acid ;  Aquaregia;  Sulphuric  acid         .         .         .        ..         ,         .         .34 

Hydrosulphuric  acid  gas  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  dihydric  sulphide  and 
its  formation         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ....         .35 

Acetic  acid  ;  Oxalic  acid  ;  Succinic  acid  ;  Tartaric  acid  ,         .'   -/>'-.         .     36 

Sulphurous  acid  or  anhydride  ;  Carbonic  dioxide  or  carbonic  acid  gas ;  Molyb- 
dic  acid;  Potassa         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ...         .     3T 

Soda;  Ammonia;  Lime-water;  Alumina;  Litharge;  Oxide  of  copper    .         .     38; 
Nitrate  of  potassium  ;  Sulphate  of  potassium  ;  Carbonate  of  potassium  ;  Black 
flux  ;  Chlorate  of  potassium  ;  Permanganate  of  potassium   .         .         .         .39 

Formation  of  potassium  permanganate  ;  Sulphocyanide  of  potassium       .         .     40 
Potassium  cyanide  ;  Chloride  of  sodium  ;  Sulphuret  of  sodium  or  sodium  sul- 
phide ;  Sulphite  of  sodium  ;   Carbonate  of  sodium         .         .         .         .         .     41 

Borax ;  Phosphate   of  sodium  ;    Acetate  of  sodium ;    Succinate  of  sodium ; 
Nitro-prusside  of  sodium       .         .         .         .         .         .  ......    42 

Chloride  of  ammonium ;  Hydrosulphide  of  ammonium  ;  Molybdate  of  am- 
monium ;  Acetate  ot  ammonium  ;  Oxalate  of  ammonium;  Neutral  succinate 
of  ammonium  ...........  43 


CONTENTS.  XI 

PAGE 

Chloride  of  barium  ;  Nitrate  of  barium  ;  Carbonate  of  barium  ;  Chloride  of 

calcium 44 

Sulphate   of  magnesium  ;  Nitrate  of  silver ;  Convenient  method  of  making 
pure  nitrate  of  silver  in  crystals  .........     45 

Litmus  paper ;  Red  litmus  paper      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .     46 

Turmeric  paper  ;    Salt  of  lead  paper';  Microcosmic  salt ;  Cautions  and  sug- 
gestions ;  Selection  of  a  room  for  a  laboratory  and  arrangement  of  the 

latter  ;  Preparation  of  a  sand-bath 47 

Arrangement  of  an  assay  furnace,  described  and  illustrated     .         .         .         .48 

Analytical  scales  for  quantitative  analyses  ;  Mode  of  weighing  ;  Burning  filter 
papers  .............     50 

How  to  use  reagents  and  glassware          .         .         .         .         .         ...         .51 

Meaning  of  using  reagents  "  in  excess ;"  Caution  in  using  reagents ;  Stirring 
rods ;  Heating  glassware      ./.,..         .         .         .         .         .         .         .52 

Heating  flasks  and  beaker  glasses  containing  solutions ;  Water  for  assay  pur- 
poses    .         .         .         .  ,         ,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .53 

List  of  usual  chemical  apparatus      .........     54 

List  of  chemicals ;  Chemicals  which  may  be  bought  or  made  in  the  labora- 
tory ;  Alcoholic  lamp,  stand  for  evaporating  dishes,  test-tube  holders,  etc.     55 
Folding  filter  papers  ;  Inverted  cone  of  platinum  foil  and  how  to  fit  it    .         .     56 
Apparatus  for  rapid  filtering ;  Vacuum  for  rapid  filtering,  described  and  il- 
lustrated      .         .         .         ,         ,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .57 

Platinum  crucibles 59 

Definition  of  brasque  ;  Fuming  nitric  acid,  its  use  and  preparation          .         .     60 
Preparation  of  the  residue  in  the  retort  from  the  formation  of  fuming  nitric 
acid  as  a  flux  for  very  stubborn  ores ;  Sodium  disulphate,  its  use  and  pre- 
paration      61 


ECONOMIC  TREATMENT  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 
USEFUL  MINERALS. 

Introductory  remarks ;  Determination  of  the  hardness  of  a  mineral  and  list 
of  substances  by  comparison  with  which  the  scale  of  descent,  in  degree 
may  be  formed  ............  63 

GOLD. 

Occurrent  condition  and  form  in  nature  ;  Native     ......     64 

Hardness  and  specific  gravity  ;  Color  ;  Composition  ;  United  States  localities  65 
Production  of  gold,  from  1880  to  1892,  in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina  and 

Georgia  ;  Decline  in  the  production  of  gold 68 

Production  of  gold  in  the  United  States  from  1884  to  1893 ;  Alaska  as  a  gold 

producing  country 69 

Production  of  gold  in  Alaska  from  1880  to  1893  ;  Extent  of  the  mineral  belt 

thus  far  developed  in  Alaska .70 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Value  of  the  annual  output  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  United  States  ;  The 
world's  production  of  gold  ;  Geology  of  gold  and  its  associations  ;  Views  in 
regard  to  the  form  in  which  gold  exists  in  nature  .  .  .  .  .  70 

Gold  sulphides ;  Extensive  distribution  of  gold  in  small  quantities  ;  Occur- 
rence of  gold  in  various  localities  .  .  .72 

Where  the  gold  of  the  world  has  been  mostly  gathered ;  Occurrence  of  gold 
in  rocks  of  various  ages;  Gold-bearing  strata  of  North  Carolina  .  .  73 

Manner  of  occurrence  of  gold  in  King's  Mountain  mine,  of  Gaston  Co.,  N.  C.; 
The  most  valuable  gold  deposits  in  North  Carolina  .  .  .  .  .74 

Peculiarity  in  the  North  Carolina  gravel  beds  ;  Average  fineness  of  California 
native  gold ;  Remarks  of  Wm.  E.  Du  Bois  on  native  gold ;  Diversity  in  the 
fineness  of  California  gold;  Fineness  of  gold-silver  alloy  .  .  .  .75 

Absurdity  of  a  union  of  gold  and  silver  in  atomic  proportions  as  asserted  by 
eminent  chemists.  Fineness  of  North  Carolina  gold;  Differences  in  the 
gold  of  Australia  .  .  '  '  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  76 

Classification  of  Australian  mines ;  Gold  of  Colorado  and  Montana  ;  Natural 
alloys  and  accompaniments  of  gold ;  Experiments  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Eckfeldt  in 
alloying  gold  with  copper  and  silver ;  Curious  facts  in  gold  affinities  and 
alloys .  .  .  .  .  .77 

Methods  of  treating  gold  alloys :  Refining  gold  in  the  Mint  of  the  United 
States 78 

Manner  of  freeing  extracted  gold  from  platinum  ;  Best  admixture  for  smelting     79 

Amount  of  gold  grains  in  the  slag  .        V       '..*.".         ...         .         .     80 

Method  of  extracting  gold  and  platinum  from  the  slag  recommended  by 
Pettenkofer  ;  Melting  California  gold  containing  osm-iridium  at  the  mints 
in  Philadelphia  and  New  York  .  .  :.  .  .  .  ,  .  .81 

Melting  of  gold  containing  osm-iridium  from  Bogoslowk  at  the  mint  in  St. 
Petersburg  ;  Manipulation  of  the  dross  resulting  from  the  treatment  of 
Californian  and  Australian  gold ;  Best  means  of  separation  according  to 
d'Hennin .  .  '  \ '.  .82 

Use  of  cast  iron  in  "  parting  "  gold  ;  The  use  of  platinum  vessels  for  this  pur- 
pose ;  Platinum  vessels  at  the  mint  in  Munich  ......  83 

Method  of  parting  gold  employed  at  the  mint  in  Munich          .         .         .         .84 

Former  use  of  platinum  vessels  at  St.  Petersburg  ;  The  discovery  of  and  prov- 
ing gold  ores;  "An  eye  for  color"  one  of  the  most  important  and  useful 
accomplishments  for  gold  exploitation ;  Simplest  instrument  for  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  ............  85 

The  cradle  or  rocker,  illustrated  and  described         .         ...         .         .86 

Sluice  system  of  washing  dirt  with  mercury ;  Wurtz's  process  of  amalgama- 
tion .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  ,  •.-•...  .  .  .87 

Crookes's  amalgam  ;  Poorer  ores  containing  gold    .         .        >         ...  •  \         .     88 

Analysis  of  such  ores  ;  Concentration  of  the  ore      .         ;     .  -.         .         .         .89 

The  Hungarian  process ;  Cupellation  of  the  gold-lead  ;  Treatment  of  the 
"button" .  .90 

Precautions  in  the  treatment  of  gold  ;  Test  of  nitric  acid  for  chlorine  ;  Defini- 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 


tion  of  quartation  ;  Precaution  in  using  crucibles  in  melting  gold  and  other 

metals  .         .         .         .         . _.,,_.     91 

Manner  of  using  nitric  acid     s.         .         .         .         •        4»  .      •        :.         .  .       .92 

SILVER. 

Occurrent  form  or  appearance  of  silver  in  nature  ;  Hardness ;  Specific  gravity     92 
Color  of  silver  ;  Ductility  ;  Composition  ;  Localities^    Geology  and  associa- 
tions    .         .         .•  .         ..       .•        ,;       .-        .•       .•       .         .     93 

Kongsberg  silver  mine,  Norway;  Examples  of  very  large  masses  of  silver       .     94 
Occurrence  of  native  silver ;  Frequent  deception  caused  by  a  mineral  called 
arsenical  iron  or  mispickel ;  Occurrence  of  silver  in  lead  ores  and  copper 
ores      .         .•       .  •       .-       .-       .-       .         .-       .•       i         .         .-       .         .95 
Ores   indicating  the  neighborhood  of  true  silver  ores;  Antimonial  silver  or 
dyscracite  ;  Bismuth  silver ;  Freieslebenite  ;  Stephanite       .         .         .         .96 

Argentite ;    Ruby   silver  or  pyrargyrite ;    Methods  of  separating    the   silver 
from  associated  minerals  ;  The  dry  way  ;  Cupellation  ;  Process  as  described 
by  Makins     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         ....         .         .97 

Preliminary  assay  as  advised  by  Mitchell         .•        .•        .  .•        .         .     98 

Scorification-process        .         .         .         .         .         .        j.         .        '.         .         .99 

Cupellation-process ;  Objectionable  feature  in  some  otherwise  very  well  ar- 
ranged cupel  furnaces  .         .         .         .        •"*         1         .         .         .         .101 

Caution   to  be  observed  in  the  dry  process ;  Wet  process  or  humid  assay  of 

silver  ;  Haidlen  and  Fresenius'  process  of  separating  silver  from  copper       .   102 
Another  method  where  gold  is  in  association  ;  Caution  to  be  observed  in  the 
wet  process ;  Solution  of  traces  of  silver  in  chlorides  of  potassium,  sodium 
and  ammonium     .         .         .         .         .'         .         ......  103 

Separation  of  silver  from  lead  and  from  cadmium  and  bismuth  compounds     .   104 
Separation  of  silver  from  mercury  and  from  sulphurets ;  The  world's  product 
of  silver;  Principal  silver  producing  regions         .         .         .         .         .         .  105 

COPPER. 

Classification  of  useful  copper  minerals  ;  Native  copper  and  its  occurrence  in 
the  United  States ;  Hardness  and  specific  gravity  ;  Behavior  before  the 
blow-pipe;  Geological  position  . '  . '  ,.  .  .  .  .  .  .  106 

Copper  of  .the  Lake  Superior  region  ;  Montana  copper  ores  ;  Arizona  copper 
ores  .  „  '  "  .  ....  .  -  .  . ;  .  .  .  ...  .  107 

Copper  pyrites  ;  Purple  ore  or  variegated  ore  ;  Indigo  copper ;  Blow-pipe  and 
other  detection  of  copper  .  .  .  .  ....  ,..,...  .  ...  .  108 

Detection  of  copper  in  exceedingly  weak  solutions ;  The  dry  method  of  assay- 
ing copper  .  .  .  .  .  .  ^.-- ,  .  .  .  .  .  .109 

The  wet  method  ;  Caution  to  be  observed  ;  Decomposition  of,  and  separation 
of  sulphur  from  copper  sulphides  .....  .  ...  .  .  .  110 

Caution  to  be  observed  in  the  preceding  process  ;  Testing  the  liquor  for  nitric 
acid  and  chlorine  .  .  .••.,.,,-,..-.,..  .  .  .  Ill 

Oxidation  of  the  sulphur  with  chlorine    .         .         ...,.    ^  •«,.'.         .112 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Method  of  finding  the  amount  of  pure  copper  in  the  assay ;  The  world's  pro- 
duction of  copper  in  1892  ;  Total  production  of  copper  in  the  United  States 
from  1840  to  1890  . 113 

NICKEL. 

Properties  of  nickel ;  Behavior  before  the  blow-pipe ;  Nickel  glance  or  Gers- 
dorffite .  .  .  '  .  .114 

Speiss ;  Oxides  of  nickel  analogous  to  iron,  and  manner  of  their  preparation  ; 
Chloride  and  sulphides  of  nickel  .  .  .  »•'.»..  .  .115 

Alloys  of  nickel ;  Nickel  and  steel  alloy ;  Armor-plate  tests  made  by  the 
United  States  government  ..  ..  . ,"  ..  ..  ..  ..  .  .  .116 

Tests  of  nickel-steel  made  by  Carnegie,  Phipps  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  for  the  U.  S. 
Navy  Department ;  Estimation  of  nickel ;  Separation  of  constituents  in  a 
nickel  ore  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  .  .117 

Deville's  method  of  obtaining  pure  nickel ;  Discovery  of  nickel  in  New  Cale- 
donia, and  the  form  in  which  it  is  met  with  ;  Distribution  of  the  nickel 
districts  ..  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .  *' .  .  •  .  .  .118 

Copper-nickel  at  Gap  Mine,  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania ;  Deposits  of 
silicate  of  nickel  at  Riddles,  Douglas  county,  Oregon  ;  Silicate  of  nickel 
in  the  Webster  mine,  North  Carolina  ;  Mr.  Diller  on  this  subject  .  .119 

Comparison  of  a  series  of  New  Caledonia  silicate  minerals  with  those  of 
Webster,  N.  C.,  and  Riddles,  Oregon  by  F.  W.  Clarke;  Arsenides  and 
sulpho-arsenides  in  the  United  States;  Deposits  of  nickel-sulphide  ores  at 
Sudbury,  Canada .  .120 

Analyses  of  an  average  month's  output  of  three  of  the  Sudbury  mines ;  Di- 
vision of  values  found  in  screening  the  "  Evans  "  mine  ore;  Sorting  and 
roasting  the  ore  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  »  .  .  .121 

New  Process  of  Ludwig  Mond  for  the  reduction  of  nickel  ores  .         .         .   122 

Foreign  localities  of  nickel  ores        .........   124 

Decrease  in  the  price  of  nickel ;  Vessels  lined  or  plated  with  nickel  for  cul- 
inary purposes  ;  Crucibles  of  nickel ;  Consumption  of  nickel  in  the  United 
States .125 

Nickel  product  of  the  United  States '*..,.  126 

IRON. 

Properties  of  iron  ;  True  ores  of  iron  ;  Chief  ores  in  Great  Britain;  Chief  ores 
of  iron  ;  Magnetic  ores  or  magnetite  .  126 

Properties  of  magnetic  ores;  Associations  of  magnetic  ores;  Effect  of  sulphur 
and  phosphorus  on  iron .  •  .  127 

Geologic  position  of  magnetite ;  Chemical  composition  of  magnetic  ore ; 
Hematite  or  red  hematite .  128 

Influence  of  the  magnet  on  hematite;  Brown  hematite  or  limonite       '   .         .  129 

Geologic  position  of  brown  hematite  ;  Peculiarities  of  appearance  in  the  limo- 
nite in  some  mines  .  130 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

Kidney  ore:  Spathic  ore;  Black  band  iron  ore;  Chief  sources  of  iron  in  the 

United  States        .         .         .         » 131 

Behavior  of  iron  ores  before  the  blow-pipe;  Dry  assay  of  iron  ;  Caution  to  be 

observed       .         .         .         .    -    .':      .         .         .         *•»...         .  132 
Treatment   of  ores   containing   sulphides,  arsenides,  or  selenium  ;  Choosing 

samples  for  experiments  from  the  ore  bed     »     -    .        '*.'.«         •     •    .         •   134 
Various  methods  of  fluxing  ;  The  wet  method          .-       ,         „      ...-'..    .         .  135 

Determination  of  phosphorus .  139 

Parry's  method  of  determining  phosphorus      .         .       .....        . '    •    •         .  140 

Formula  for  deducing  the  pure  iron  ;  Precipitation  of  lime  and  magnesia        .   142 
Cautions  to  be  observed  .         ..  •      .         .         .    .     »         .         .        '»         .         .  143 

Determination  of  sulphur      .....         .         .     -.,.**        .         .         .  144 

Caution  to  be  observed    ..        ..        .     '..  .         Vs-    •  •.'   .  •    .         .         .145 

Determination  of  manganese    .         .         .'.-.•        .        *.         .•        .         .         .  146 
Determination  of  carbonic  dioxide  ;  Kipp's  apparatus  described  and  illustrated  149 
Use  of  Kipp's  carbonic  dioxide  apparatus         .         .         .•        .  •-     .    •     •.         .   150 
Titanic  acid  and  its  occurrence  in  iron  sand ;  Rutile        .         .  .         .  151 

Detection  of  titanic  acid  under  the  blow-pipe  ;  Extraction  of  titanic  acid  from 
iron  sand,  or  titanic  iron  ore         . .     -  .,        ..        ..        ..       .         . .        .         .   152 

Volumetric  determination;  Explanatory  remarks ;  Volumetric  determination 

by  potassium  permanganate          . 153 

The  preparation  used;  Preparation  of  the  test  iron  .....  154 

Exhaustion  of  iron-ore  deposits  ;  Remarks  of  Major  John  W.  Powell  on  this 
subject;  Increase  in  the  production  of  pig  iron   .......   159 

The  Gogebic  district  in  the  vicinity  of  Gogebic  Lake,  Ontonagon  Co.,  Michi- 
gan;  Tendency  towards  giving  attention  to  neglected  deposits  .  .  .160 

TIN. 

Properties  of  pure  tin  ;  Occurrent  form  of  tin  ;  Tin-stone  or  cassiterite;  Bell- 
metal  ore  or  stannite    .         .         .•..*..,.         .         .         .         .  161 

Stream-tin  and  its  occurrence  in  the  island  of  Banca ;  Localities  and  Geology 
of  tin    .         .  .         .         ...         .         .         .         .         .         .162 

Tin-ore  in  Dakota  ;  Geological  surroundings  of  the  Black  Hills  ;  Staurolite  ; 
Constitution  of  the  rock  in  which  the  tin-ore  occurs    .         .         .         .         .   163 

General  average  content  of  block  tin  in  Cornwall  and  Dakota  ores  ;  Tin  stone 
in  the  Black  Hills,  Wyoming;  Wood-tin  from  Montana;  Analysis  by  Dr. 
F.  A.  Genth  of  an  ore  from  California;  The  Temescal  tin  mines  at  Cajalca ; 

Mineralogical  appearance  of  tin  ores .  <-       .   ]  64 

Behavior  of  cassiterite  before  the  blow-pipe     »        .         .         .         .         .         .165 

Behavior  of  stannite  before  the  blow-pipe;  Geology  of  stannite;  Extraction 

for  detection .         .  166 

Estimation  of  the  quantity  of  tin  in  any  compound         .         .'        .         .         .   167 
Determination  of  lead,  if  present     .........  168 

Output  of  tin  in  1891       .         .'        .'        ."        .'  .     .'      ...       ..         •         •   169 


XVI  CONTENTS. 


ZINC. 

PAGE 

Occurrent  form  of  zinc ;  Properties  of  metallic  zinc ;  Impurities  of  metallic 

zinc '  ..  .  .  169 

Localities  of  zinc  ores ;  Occurrence  of  zinc  sulphide  ;  Silicate  of  zinc  or  Wil- 

lemite ;  Carbonate  of  zinc  or  Smithsonite    .         .         .         .         .         .         .1*70' 

Zinc  sulphide  or  blende;  Behavior  of  zinc  ores  under  the  blowpipe  .  .  171 
Distilling  zinc ;  Apparatus  for  distilling  zinc  on  a  small  scale,  described  and 

illustrated 172: 

Distilling  of  calamine  or  blende  in  the  large  way  by  the  English  method  .  173 

The  Belgian  process  ;  The  Silesian  process .  174 

Manufacture  of  the  retorts,  adapters,  etc.,  employed  in  the  Belgian  process ; 

Mixture  for  the  lower  retorts  employed  at  Altenberg  near  Aix-la-Chapelle.  175- 
Various  methods  of  manufacturing  retorts  ;  Preparation  of  the  clay  used  for 

the  manufacture  of  muffles  for  the  Silesian  process  .  .  .  .  .  176> 
Construction  of  the  muffles ;  Oxide  of  zinc  and  its  properties ;  Proportion  of 

metallic  zinc  in  the  oxide  of  zinc          .         .x        .        .    .     .        .         .         .  177 

Pure  metallic  zinc  and  its  preparation  by  the  wet  process  .  .  »  .178- 
Separation  of  cadmium  and  arsenic,  as  well  as  other  metallic  oxides,  in  the 

analysis  of  zinc  ore  ..  ..  .  -  .  ...  .  •  "'"•"••''  .179' 
Arsenious  sulphide,  its  properties  and  composition  .  .  .  .  .  181 

LEAD. 

Properties  of  lead    .         .         .         .         .  •       .  .         .         .         .         .  181 

Galena  or  galenite ;  Geological  horizons  and  occurrence  of  lead  ;  Production 
of  lead  in  the  United  States          .         .         »        .         .         .         .         .         .  182 

Galenas  without  silver  ;  Gold  in  lead  ores  ;  Working  on  the  large  scale  ;    De- 
termination of  the  amount  of  lead  present  by  the  iron  method    .         .         .183 

The  dry  assay          .          .•         .... 184 

Conversion  of  the  lead  into  the  sulphate  in  the  wet  method  ;  Composition  of 

lead  sulphate  ;  Picking  over  and  sorting  the  lead  ores  .         .  .   185- 

Conversion  of  lead  sulphide  into  lead  oxide  and  sulphate ;  Constitution  of  the 
fumes  or  gaseous  constituents  passing  off  from  lead  ores ;  Use  of  blowers 

or  exhausters .'.'.*.   186 

Experiments  with  the  Sturtevant  blower  ;  The  Root  blower  ;  Pattinson's  pro- 
cess  of  desilverizing  lead      .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .         .  187 

Parkes's  process  of  desilverizing  lead       .         .         .         .         .  .         .  188 

Lead  characteristics  ;  Action  of  water  upon  lead     .         .         .         .        -.'        .   189 

Wet  assays  and  methods  of  detection  ;  Quantitative  determination  of  lead.  190 
Analysis  of  silver  lead;  Mascazzinie's  method  of  assaying  lead  ore  .  .  191 

MANGANESE. 

Distribution  of  manganese;  Foreign  substances  in  manganese;  Separation  of 

oxide  of  manganese  in  preparing  chlorine     .         .         .         .  .  '      .         .  192 

Manganese  ores  ;  Pyrolusite     .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .  ,                 .193 

Braunite ;  Hausmannite ;  Manganite        .         .         .         .         .  .         .         .   194 


CONTENTS.  XVII 

PAGE. 

Varvicite  ;  Psilomelane    ............   195 

Average  composition  of  19  psilomelanes  from  various  localities;  Wad;  Other 
useful  compounds  of  manganese;   Manganese  spar       .....   19& 

Rodochrosite  and  diallogite  ;  Franklinite  ;  Knebelite  ;  Behavior  of  compounds 
containing  manganese  before  the  blow-pipe  ......   19T 

Most  important  mines  of  manganese  in  the  United  States         ....   198- 

Method  adopted  by  the  American  Manganese  Company,  Limited,  for  sinking 

shafts  and  washing  the  ore  at  the  Crimora  mine,  Augusta  county,  Va.         .  199 
Use  of  manganese  ores     .         .         ...         4*    ...  .         .         «    .-..   •         •  200 

Manganiferous  coke  for  the  production  of  crude  iron  ;  Occurrence  of  manga- 
nese in  the  argentiferous  iron  ores  of  the  upper  workings  of  the  Leadville 
deposits ;  Use  of  low-grade  manganese  ores  rich  in  iron,  for  the  preparation 
of  spiegeleisen,  ferro-manganese,  etc.;  Chilian  manganese  ores;  Countries 
producing  manganese  ores    ...         .      ' . .         .         .         ...         .  202 

Manner  of  obtaining  metallic  manganese  ;  Manganese  alloys ;  Determination 

of  the  presence  of  the  oxide  of  manganese  in  building  stones  .  .  .  203 
Process  for  the  detection  of  minute  traces  of  manganese  .  .  .  .  204 

PLATINUM. 

Properties  of  platinum ;   Geology  and  occurrence     .         .  .         .         .  204 

United  States  localities  ;  Analysis  of  California  ore 205 

Osmiridium  (iridosmine);  Production  of  platinum  in  the  United  States  ;  Wet 
process  of  analysis  .  .  ...  .  .  .  ~.  .  .  .  .  .  206- 

IRIDIUM. 

Properties  of  iridium  ;  Table  exhibiting  a  general  view  of  the  analytical  pro- 
cess by  which  the  remarkable  ores  associated  in  the  ores  of  platinum  may 
be  separated  from  each  other  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  2091 

Geographical  distribution  of  iridium  ;  Occurrence  ip  the  United  States  .         .210 

Iridium  a  source  of  great  annoyance  when  mixed  with  gold  dust ;  Separation 
of  the  metals  in  the  mints ;  Melting  of  iridium  made  possible  by  the  dis- 
covery of  Mr.  John  Holland,  of  Cincinnati  .  .  .  .  .  .211 

Use  of  natural  grains  of  iridosmine  for  pointing  gold  pens  ;  Other  uses  of  this 
metal;  Prices  of  iridosmine  .  .,  .  .  .  v  ."  .  .  212 

MERCURY. 

Occurrent  forms  and  properties  of  mercury      .         .         .         ,       '".         .         .212 
Localities;  Geology  and  associations       .         .          .         .         .         .     '    .         •  213 

Chemical  characteristics ;  Oxides  of  mercury  .          .         ....         .  214 

Ores  of  mercury ;  Cinnabar  and  its  properties;  Preparation  of  the  ore; 

Grama  or  coarse  ore ;  Waste  or  terrero         .         .         .         .         .         .         .215 

The  retort  process  ;  Roasting  in  cylinder  furnaces  of  the  Rumford  pattern ; 

The  HiHtner  &  Scott  shelf  furnace  .  .  , 216 

Process  in  the  old  intermittent  furnaces  ;  Model  of  the  old  Rumford  lime-kiln 

improved  by  Exeli ;  Characteristics  of  mercurial  compounds  .  .  .  218 
Method  for  determining  mercury  in  compounds  .  .  .  .  .  .  220 


XV111  CONTENTS. 

ANTIMONY. 

PAGE 

Properties  of  antimony ;  Chief  ores  of  antimony  ;  Stibnite  ;  Valentinite  or 
white  antimony;  Red  antimony  or  kermesite;  Occurrent  forms  of  stibnite ; 
Behavior  before  the  blow-pipe  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  221 

Occurrence  of  antimony  in  the  United  States ;  Association  of  antimony  with 
cinnabar;  Remarkable  deposits  of  stibnite  in  Utah  .  .  .  .  .  222 

Extraction  of  antimony  from  its  ores:  Uses  of  antimony  :  Estimation  of  anti- 
mony   223 

Composition  of  antimony  tetroxide;  To  distinguish  antimony  from  bismuth  ; 
Makins's  method  of  estimating  antimony  .......  224 

Caution  to  be  observed  in  making  the  test       .         .         .         .         .         .         .  225 

BISMUTH. 

Properties  of  bismuth  ;  Artificial  formation  of  bismuth  crystals  .  .  .  225 
Detection  of  bismuth  ;  Behavior  of  a  salt  of  bismuth  under  the  blow-pipe  .  226 
Occurrence  of  bismuth  in  the  United  States;  Uses  of  metallic  bismuth  .  .  22*? 

CHROMIUM. 

Chrome-iron  or  iron-stone        ..........  227 

Chromite  and  its  properties;  Behavior  of  chromite  before  the  blow-pipe;  Oc- 
currence of  chromite  ;  Treatment  of  the  ore 228 

Deposits  of  chrome  ore  recently  found  ;  Quantitative  analysis  of  chrome  iron 
ore  .  .  229 

COBALT. 

Ores  of  cobalt :  Cobalt  glance  ;  Smaltine ;  Zaffre ;  Preparation  of  metallic 
cobalt  .  .  .  "  I  .  ' .  230 

Properties  of  cobalt ;  Occurrence  of  cobalt  minerals  in  the  United  States; 
Use  of  cobalt .  231 

Metallic  value  of  cobalt ;  Detection  of  cobalt  compounds  under  the  blow- 
pipe ;  Separation  of  cobalt  from  nickel  .......  232 

ALUMINIUM. 

Properties  of  aluminium          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .233 

Conductivity  of  heat  of   aluminium   compared'  with   that  of   other  metals ; 
Electric  conductivity  of  aluminium      ........  234 

Efforts  of  St.  Claire  Deville  to  develop  the  aluminium  industry  ;  Development 
of  electro-metallurgy  largely  due   to  the  attempts  to  produce  aluminium 
economically ;  Ores  of  aluminium  :  Cryolite  ;  Bauxite         ....  235 

European  and  American  occurrences  of  bauxite;  Mining  of  bauxite   in   Ala- 
bama   .............          .236 

Account  by  Mr.  J.  W.  Spencer  of  the  occurrence  of  bauxite  in  Georgia  .         .  237 
Arkansas  bauxites  ;  Analysis  of  bauxite  from  Baux         .....  238 

Analyses  of  German  bauxite  ;  Analyses  of  Alabama  bauxite  .         .         .  239 


CONTENTS.  XIX 

PAGE 

Analyses  of  Georgia  bauxite  ;  Analyses  of  bauxite  from  Pulaski  county,  Ar- 
kansas ;  The  desired  element  in  bauxite  .......  240 

Treatment  of  Georgia  and  Alabama  bauxite  ;  Analysis  of  bauxite  as  carried 
out  in  the  Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory,  Limited  .....  241 

Determination  of  silica  and  of  titanic  acid      .......  242 

Cost  of  pure  bauxite  ore  in  Pittsburgh  ;  Diaspore ;  Gibbsite    ....  243 

Aluminite  ;  Method  of  reduction ;  Early  processes  for  producing  aluminium 
by  the  aid  of  the  electric  current ;  M.  Adolph  Minet's  process  .  .  .  244 

Charles  M.  Hall's  process  of  manufacture  of  aluminium  as  conducted  by  the 
Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  .........  245 

Daily  output  of  aluminium  by  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company ;  Alloys  of 
aluminium  ;  Product  of  aluminium  in  the  United  States  from  1883  to  1892.  248 

The  world's  product  of  aluminium  up  to  the  beginning  of  1893       .         .  249 

CORUNDUM  AND  EMERY. 

Properties  of  corundum  ;  Behavior  under  the  blow-pipe ;  The  largest  occur- 
rence of  emery  at  present  known  :  Chlorite  considered  a  good  sign  in 
searching  for  corundum  » 250 

Uses  of  corundum  and  emery  of  commerce  ;  Test  for  the  abrasive  power  of  a 
corundum  sample  ;  Annual  product  of  corundnm  and  emery  in  the  United 
States  since  1881  .  .  .  251 

Imports  of  emery  for  1893 252 

PUMICE  STONE. 

Deposit  of  pumice  stone  in  the  United  States  ;  Composition  of  pumice  stone 
as  imported  from  the  Lipari  Islands  ........  252 

Value  of  importation  of  pumice  stone ;  Rotten  stone  or  tripoli ;  Value  of  im- 
portation of  rotten  stone  .  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .  253 

INFUSORIAL  EARTH. 

Analysis  of  infusorial  earth  near  Richmond,  Va.;  Occurrences  in  California 
and  Nevada  ;  Uses  of  infusorial  earth  ;  Deposit  of  "  tripoli "  on  the  Patux- 
ent  river,  near  Dunkirk,  Calvert  county,  Marj'land  .....  253 

Deposit  of  silicious  earth  in  Newton  county,  Missouri ;  Annual  production  of 
infusorial  earth  in  the  United  States  since  1880  ......  254 

GRINDSTONES. 

Principal  source  of  grindstones  in  the  United  States  ;  Imports  and  home  pro- 
duction of  grindstones  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  255 

BUHR-STONES. 

Leading  localities  of  buhr-stones  in  the  United  States      .....  255 
Reason  for  the  decrease  in  the  importation  of  buhr-stones  ;  Value  of  the  total 
product  of  buhr-stones  in  the  United  States  in  1893     .....  256 


XX  CONTENTS. 


THE  DIAMOND. 

PAGE 

Places  in  the  United  States  where  diamonds  have  been  found          «        .         .  256 
Minerals  with  which  the  diamonds  are  found  associated  in  North  Carolina ; 
Monazite,  its  composition  and  its  behavior  under  the  blow-pipe ;  Xenotine, 
its  composition  and  behavior  under  the  blow-pipe        .....  257 
Octahedrite  and  its  properties ;  Various  additional  places  in  the  United  States 
where  diamonds  have  been  found          ........  258 

Properties  of  the  diamond  ;  Test  of  a  diamond 259 

Location  of  the  richest  stones  in  the  diamond  fields  of  Africa ;  Largest  dia- 
mond in  the  world        ...  .  260 


PAET  II. 

MINING   WORK   AND   ARCHITECTURE,  INCLUDING    VARIOUS    SUGGES- 
TIONS,   WITH    DESCRIPTIONS    OF    ASSOCIATED    APPARATUS    AND 
MACHINERY.      WITH    AN    APPENDIX    ON    BORING    ARTESIAN, 
PETROLEUM,  GAS  AND  OTHER  DEEP  WELLS. 


MINING  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MACHINERY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

Explanatory  remarks  ;.  Some  explanations  of  terms  .         ...         .  263 

Gallery  or  gangway,  described  and  illustrated         ......   264 

Preliminary  work  and  considerations  ;  Necessity  of  trial  shafts  or  excavations 

in  some  cases  ;  Borings  ;  Examination  of  the  immediate  neighborhood         .  265 
Study  of  the  nature  of  the  soil ;  Importance  of  accessibility  to  market;  Drain- 
age ;  Definite  provision  to  be  made  for  the  system  of  inclination  called  the 

grade 266 

Modification  of  the  grade  or  descent  of  the  floor ;  Amount  of  grade  ;  Location 
of  the  gallery  ;  Advantage  of  opening  a  gallery  from  the  side  of  a  hill,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated 267 

Sinking  a  slope  from  the  top  of  a  hill,  described  and  illustrated ;  A  gallery 

entirely  in  the  lode  to  be  worked  out,  described  and  illustrated  »         .  268 

Various  methods  of  building  a  gallery,  described  and  illustrated     .         .         .  269 
Mine  water  and  different  methods  of  removing  it,  described  and  illustrated     .  270 
Mode  of  working  where  expedition  is  required,  described  and  illustrated  ;  The 
sumpt;  Names  applied   to  the  parallel   galleries;    Drifts  or  ore- ways  for 
drawing  the  ore  and  other  minerals,  as  well  as  the  water    ....  271 


CONTENTS.  XXI 

PAGE 

Shaft  method  of  reaching  the  objects  of  search  and  of  raining;  Classification 
of  shafts;  Different  methods  of  working  shafts;  The  day-shaft  .  .  .  272 

Location  of  the  sumpt ;  Advantage  of  the  slope  over  the  perpendicular  shaft ; 
Cross  section  of  a  method  of  shaft-framing,  described  and  illustrated  .  273 

Importance  of  preserving  the  exact  direction  of  a  shaft;  Economy  in  sinking 
another  shaft,  more  as  a  trial  shaft,  described  and  illustrated  .  .  .  274 

Sinking  the  shaft  where  the  lode  is  unstable  or  weak,  and  putting  down  the 
slope  in  coal-beds  ;  Recommendations  in  opening  the  shaft  in  rock  or  soil; 
Reason  why  the  long  side  will  generally  be  towards  the  engine  or  machinery 
for  pumping  or  raising;  Commencement  of  the  main  lift  or  galleries  .  275 

Arrangement  of  the  level  or  floor  of  the  gangway  at  the  mouth  or  opening 
into  the  shaft  and  mode  of  supporting  the  roof,  described  and  illustrated  ; 
The  dumping  floor  or  pit ;  Method  of  leading  off  water  in  some  shafts,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  . 276 

On  the  opening  of  mines  ;  The  most  important  rule  to  be  observed  in  open- 
ing or  exploring  a  deposit  ..........  277 

The  most  important  changes  in  the  direction  of  veins ;  Directions  for  follow- 
ing veins  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .  .  .  .  •  278 

Distinction  between  the  gangue  and  the  ore,  described  and  illustrated  ;  Neces- 
sity of  paying  special  attention  to  the  rise  (inclination)  of  the  ore  .  .  279 

Considerations  in  determining  where  the  work  of  opening  a  deposit  is  to  be- 
gin, and  how  it  is  to  be  carried  on  ........  280 

Opening  of  large  irregular  deposits;  Difficulties  in  opening  and  preparing  for 
mining  the  nests  or  kidneys  of  ore ;  Requirements  of  well-conducted, 
scientific,  systematic  mining  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .281 

Final  preparation  and  working  of  mines  ;  Division  of  the  mineral  deposit  or 
matter  into  smaller  portions  .........  282 

"  Stoping"  out  the  ore  ;  When  the  ore  is  said  to  be  "  exposed;"  Necessity  of 
establishing  a  correct  relation  between  the  preparatory  work  and  the  ex- 
tracting of  the  ore  .  .  .  .  .  .  ...  .  .  .  283 

Avaricious  taking  out  of  ores  which  are  rich  and  easily  accessible  not  allowed 
by  judicious  mining;  Consequences  of  what  the  Germans  call  a  "robbing 
of  the  mine;"  Importance  of  gaining  the  ore  in  a  mine  as  easily  and 
cheaply  as  possible  ...........  284 

Number  of  miners  to  be  employed  ;  Various  provisions  and  precautions    .         .   285 

Veins  and  lodes,  how  prepared  and  mined  ;  Method  for  a  vein  not  over  twelve 
feet  thick,  and  if  preparations  for  mining  overhead  are  to  be  made,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  ;  Work  below  the  floor  of  the  main  gangway,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  ..........  285 

Different  methods  of  exhausting  the  mine  ;  Mining  overhead,  described  and 
illustrated  .  . 286 

Mode  of  taking  the  ore  to  the  surface  by  means  of  the  main  gangway,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated 287 

Another  method  of  working  overhead,  described  and  illustrated  ;  Method  of 
working  downwards,  described  and  illustrated  .  .  .  .  .  .  288 


XX 11  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Exposure  of  the  ore  in  both   these  methods  of  mining;  Advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  method  .         .         .         .         .         ...         .  289 

Method   of  working  a  vein  or   lode  not  uniformly  rich,  when  the  ore  is  de- 
posited in  small  detached  masses  or  in  pockets  or  nests  ;  Cross  work  method 
of  working  lodes,  described  and  illustrated  .         .         .         ...;: '     .         .  290 

Preparation  and  working  of  stratified  deposits  and  beds ;  Different  methods 
of  working  beds  whose  inclination  is  less  than  40  degrees ;  The  long  wall 
system,  described  and  illustrated  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  292 

The  post  and  stall  method,  described  and  illustrated        .         .         .         .         .   294 

Most  advantageous  manner  of  cutting  levels  and  drifts  in  coal  beds,  described 

and  illustrated;  Support  for  the  roof  or  walls       .  .'  .         .  295 

Spontaneous  combustion  in  coal  mines,  and  mode  of  preventing  conflagrations  296 

Preparation  and  working  of  mineral  deposits  that  occur  in  large  masses          .  29* 

Method  of  preparing  a  deposit  with  little  or  no  regularity  of  form,  described 

and  illustrated      .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  297 

Manner  of  gaining  valuable  ore  contained  in  the  wreck  if  a  part  of  the  mine 

should  crush  in  ;  Method  in  rock  salt  works,  described  and  illustrated         .  298 
Method   of  gaining  the  salt  in  a  mine  by  dissolving  it,  described  and  illus- 
trated ;   Other  methods  employed  in  salt  mining,  described  and  illustrated  299 
Preparation  and  working  of  nests,  cores  or  pockets  ;  Surface  or  day  working; 
Stripping;  Removal  of  water        .         .         ...         .         .         .         .  300 

Open  quarrying  ;  Mining  loose  masses  ;  Methods  of  quarrying  solid  rock         .  301 
Working  a  quarry  underground  with  tunnels  ;  Huddling         ....  302 

Employment  of  various  contrivances  instead  of  ditches ;  The  washboard  and 

its  use  ;  Direct  conveyance  of  water  by  means  of  a  hose       f         .         .         .  303 
Assorting  the  ore  in  the  mine  ;  Transportation  ;  Classification  of  this  subject : 
General  rules        .       .  .         .-         .         .         .-         .         .         .         .         .         .  304 

Transportation  through  galleries  and  drifts  having  an  inclination  of  more  than 

10°  and  less  than  30°;  The  jigger-break,  described  and  illustrated      .         .  305 
Transportation   through   shafts ;  Ropes   and   their  manner  of  use,  described 
and  illustrated  ;  Transportation  through  shutes  .         .         .         .         .         .  306 

The  windlass  and  its  use,  described  and  illustrated  ,         ...  307 

Hemp   ropes  ;  Round  buckets   and   square   vessels  with  or  without  wheels  : 
Machines  for  greater  depths  of  the  shaft        .         .-  .        ..         .  308 

The  horse-whim,  described  and  illustrated 309 

Method  for  preventing  a  loaded  car  from  "jumping-  the  track,"  illustrated; 
The  water   whim,  described  and  illustrated  ;  The   brake   attachment,   de- 
scribed and  illustrated          .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .  310 

Another  method,  described  and  illustrated      .         .-      ^     .    .         .       -.         .  311 
The  use  of  turbine  wheels,  described  and  illustrated       .         .         .         .         .  312 

Explanation  of  the  general  principles  upon  which  all  steam  engines  move, 

illustrated ,313 

The  principle  of  reversing  the  action  of  the  wheel,  explained  and  illustrated.  316 
Transportation   on   steep   inclines  ;  Running  cars  on  very  steep  inclines,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  ;  Various  means  and  appliances  to  give  expedition 


CONTENTS.  XX111 

PAGE 

as  well  as  security  in  transportation  ;  Cages   and    their  use,  described   and 

illustrated 317 

Emptying  and  preservation  of  vessels ;  The  dump-cart ;  Ladders   for   ingress 
or  egress  of  workmen  ...........  318 

Other  methods  for  ascending  and  descending,  illustrated         .  .         .  319 

Timbering  and  masonry  ;  Pillars  of  native  rock       ......  319 

Artificial  pillars;  The  question  whether  timbering  or  masonry  is  most  suita- 
ble and  advantageous  .         .         ...         .         .         .         ...  320 

Mining  carpentry :  Timbers  generally  preferred   in  mining ;  Position   of  tim- 
ber; Placing  the  timber,  illustrated     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  321 

Timbering  a  gallery,  described  and  illustrated         ......  322 

Method  of  framing,  described  and  illustrated  ;  Posts  and  caps  in   salt  mines, 
illustrated;  Ground  sills,  illustrated     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  323 

Manner  of  placing  the  frames,  illustrated         .         .         .         .         ,         ...  324 

Method  of  supporting  the  caps  of  a  timbered  gallery  in  opening  a  side  or  drift 
gallery,  illustrated  ;  Preparation  of  the  floor  of  a  gallery  or  drift  for  trans- 
portation and  drainage,  illustrated  ........  325 

Timbering  of  shafts,  described  and  illustrated 326 

Methods  of  constructing  the  lining  of  shaft  timbering,  described  and  illus- 
trated   32*7 

Pile  driving,  illustrated  ;  Timbering  the  divisions  of  perpendicular  shafts,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated  ;  Preparation  of  a  place  for  filling  the  vessels,  illus- 
trated   ' 329 

Timbering  of  inclined  shafts  (slopes),  described  and  illustrated       .         .         .  330 
Timbering  necessary  for  working  in  mines ;  Preparation  of  a  timber   ceiling 
in  working  over-head,  illustrated          .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  331 

Procedure  of  timbering  in  working  downward  on  benches,  illustrated ;  Method 
of  timbering  in  taking  out  the  ore  from  large  deposits,  illustrated  ;  Renew- 
ing timbering        .         .         .         .         ,         .         .  .         .         .         .  332 

Replacing  of  single  frames,  illustrated     .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  333 

Masonry ;  Wet-laid  and  dry  walls 333 

Requirements  of  durable  masonry  ;  Preparation  of  good  common  mortar  and 
of  hydraulic  mortar;   "  Break-joint,"  illustrated  .....  334 

Clearing   a  space  for  the  wall ;  On   what  the   strength   of  a  wall  depends  ; 
Method  of  giving  a  wall  a   firmer  position,    illustrated  ;  Arched  masonry, 
illustrated    ..........  .  335 

Relation  of  the  length,  or  span,  and  the  height  of  the   arch  to  each   other; 
Mode  of  giving  the  proper  curve  to  the  arch         ......  336 

Form  of  a  semicircular  arch,  illustrated  ;  Manner    of  constructing  the   egg- 
shaped  pattern,  illustrated    .         .         .         .         .  .         .         .         .  337 

Construction  of  an  arched  tunnel,  illustrated ;  Bedding  for  the  arched  wall.  338 
Reasons  for  preferring  dry  walls  of  greater  thickness  in  mines ;  Protection  of 
arched  walls  against  water,  illustrated  ;  Arching  a  gallery  or  drift,  illus- 
trated :  Erection  of  a  half  vault,  illustrated 339 


XXIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Construction  of  a  drainage  canal  or  sluice  in  main  galleries  or  adits,  illus- 
trated; Joists  for  the  tramway,  illustrated  :  Masonry  for  shafts  .  .  .  340 

Manner  of  building  the  walls,  illustrated;  Partition  walls,  illustrated  ;  Method 
of  masoning  shafts  in  swamp  lands,  illustrated  ......  341 


APPENDIX. 
SINKING  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

APPARATUS  FOR  SINKING  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 

PAGE 

Derricks ;  W.  Blasdell   on   the   tools   used  ;  Size  of  timber  for  derricks  and 
manner  of  placing  them       .         .         .  ..._..         .  343- 

Precaution  to  be  observed  in  placing  the  timber  ;  Method  adopted  by  Mr.  Blas- 
dell in  sinking  artesian  wells  ;  Construction  of  the  derrick   used         .         .  344 
Pipes  or  tubing  used  in  sinking  artesian  wells  ;  Mode  of  connecting  the  pipes.  345 
The  auger  and  rods  used  ;  The  sand-pump  and  its  use     .         ...         .         .  346 

Mode  of  boring  or  sinking  tubing  or  pipe  ;  Description  of  levers  to  force   the 

pipe  down 347 

Valve  sockets  or  catch-alls ;  The  wrench-bar,  boulder-cracker  and  spring- 
catch  ,'......  348 

To  commence  an  artesian  well          .         .         .         .         ...         .         .  348 

How  to  obtain  a  complete  fulcrum  power  for  the  levers  ;  Boring  through  clay, 

loam  or  marl 349 

Use  of  the  boulder  catcher  or  lazy  tongs  ;  Requirements  for  obtaining  a  sup- 
ply of  water ;  Wells  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia ;  Various  tools  which 
may  be  employed  in  drilling  the  rock  .  .  .  .  -^  .  .  350 

Use  of  the  spring  pole »        .         .         .351 

Oil  and  gas  wells ;  Tools   required  for  sinking   an  oil   or  gas  well :  How  to 
commence  drilling         ...........  351 

Use  of  the  reamer  ;  The  seed-bag  and  its  use  ;  Diameter  of  the  wells  :  Source 
of  most  of  the  oil  obtained  at  the  present  day  ......  352 

INDEX  .  353 


A  PRACTICAL  MANUAL 


OF 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND  MINING, 


MINING    MINERALOGY. 
PRELIMINARY  PRINCIPLES  AND  PREPARATIONS. 

IN  the  successful  study  of  mining  mineralogy  it  is  neces- 
sary to  become  thoroughly  informed  upon  certain  physical 
properties.  A  correct  recognition  of  minerals  does  not,  how- 
ever, demand  a  perfect  knowledge  of  any  one  science,  as,  for 
example,  that  of  crystallography,  or  that  of  the  chemical 
composition  of  even  those  minerals  with  which  one  may 
nevertheless  become  unmistakably  familiar.  Skill  in  deter- 
mining may  depend,  in  a  very  large  degree,  upon  the  ex- 
perience we  may  acquire  by  repeated  examination  of  well- 
known  varieties  of  the  same  species.  This  experience, 
however,  demands  that  some  one  shall  have  preceded  us  with 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  chemistry,  in  order  that  the  analy- 
ses may  decide  that  certain  crystallized  forms  in  minerals, 
with  certain  specific  gravity,  hardness,  color,  cleavage,  lustre, 
and  some  other  physical  properties,  are  of  a  certain  specified 
or  characteristic  composition.  Chemical  analysis  alone  can 
decide  the  latter  fact,  although  we  may  know  that  certain 

(1) 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


mineralogical  compounds  never  crystallize  otherwise  than  in 
certain  forms,  with  a  certain  hardness,  specific  gravity,  etc. 

The  forms  of  crystals  are  exceedingly  various,  while  the 
systems  of  crystallization  based  on  their  mathematical  dis- 
tinctions are  only  six  in  number. 

Systems  of  Crystallization. 


No. 


Some  typical  simple  forms. 


Cube  and  octahedron. 

Right  prism  with  square  base. 

Right  prism  with  rectangular  or 
rhombic  base. 

Right    rhomboidal    and    oblique 
rhombic  prisms. 

Oblique  disymmetric  rhomboidal 
prism. 

Rhombohedron    and    hexagonal 
prism. 


Axes. 


3  axes,  rectangular  and  equal. 
3  axes,  rectangular,  2  equal. 

3  axes,   rectangular  and  un- 
equal. 

3  axes,  unequal,  2  rectangu- 
lar. 

3  axes,    unequal,     and     un- 
equally inclined. 

4  axes,  3  equal  and  equally 
inclined,  1  unequal  at  right 
angles  to  the  other  three. 


For  Example. — We  may  meet  with  a  crystal  which  is 
clear  as  glass,  and  has  six  long  sides,  forming  what  is  desig- 
nated by  the  name  "  prism  ;  "  this  six-sided  prism,  however, 
terminates  with  a  six-sided  end  or  point,  the  other  end  of  the 
prism  may  be  attached  to  a  rock.  Now  minerals  of  this 
form  have  been  analyzed  and  always  found  to  be  composed 
of  substances  called  silicon  and  oxygen,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter ;  and  as  this  compound 
and  no  other  crystallizes  in  this  form,  we  know  it  by  this 
specific  form  and  call  it  "  quartz." 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PREPARATION.  6 

Again,  we  may  meet  with  an  equally  transparent  sub- 
stance which,  when  in  crystalline  form,  presents  itself  with 
two  edges,  each  forming  an  acute  angle,  and  two  an  obtuse, 
and  as  a  whole  mass  appearing  under  that  figure  called,  in 
geometry,  a  rhomb.  Its  analysis  shows  it  to  contain  only 
lime  and  carbonic  acid  (dioxide).  The  fact,  therefore,  that 
any  transparent  mineral  presents  such  angles  makes  it  almost 
certain  that  it  is  a  lime  carbonate.  A  knowledge  of  the 
crystalline  forms  under  which  certain  chemical  compounds 
present  themselves  frequently  saves  us  the  trouble  of  analysis. 

CRYSTALLIZATION,  therefore,  is  a  physical  property  of  min- 
erals which,  wrhile  it  does  not  always  determine  the  nature 
of  the  substance  before  us,  is  frequently  of  immense  import- 
ance. The  mineralogist  may  find  a  set  of  crystals  which, 
while  they  have  six  sides  and  are  transparent,  have  had  their 
ends  broken  off  so  that  he  cannot  certainly  know  that  they 
are  quartz  ;  for  lime  carbonate  may  appear  very  rarely  in 
six-sided  crystals,  but  never  in  six-pointed  crystals.  In  this 
case  the  mineralogist  is  forced  to  resort  to  his  acquaintance 
with  other  physical  properties,  such  as  we  shall  presently 
introduce. 

As  an  illustration  of  how  important  this  subject  is,  we  may 
state  the  following :  In  1876,  in  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  several 
thousand  tons  of  excellent  red  hematite  ore  were  condemned 
because  of  the  appearance  of  large  quantities  of  supposed 
minute  quartz  crystals  in  the  ore.  When  visiting  the  mines 
we  discovered  that  the  six-sided  crystals  had  three-sided  ter- 
minations, which  quartz  never  has,  in  place  of  the  six  which 
quartz  always  has.  They  were  therefore  lime  carbonate, 
which  is  an  advantage  in  the  furnace  treatment,  while  quartz 
is  an  injury.  This  distinction  between  three-  and  six-sided 


MINERALS,  MIXES,  AND    MINING. 

terminations  led  to  the  immediate  sale  of  the  ore.  If,  how- 
ever, the  terminations  could  not  have  been  seen,  or  we  wished 
to  corroborate  what  the  crystalline  structure  indicated,  we 
must  have  proceeded  to  the  consideration  of  other  properties. 

HARDNESS  as  a  characteristic  comes  in  to  help  in  the  de- 
termination of  many  minerals.  In  the  illustration  given  in 
the  last  paragraph,  the  crystals  would  have  betrayed  their 
composition  by  their  softness  as  compared  with  quartz.  The 
point  of  a  knife  or  needle  would  readily  scratch  them,  show- 
ing that  in  hardness  they  could  not  be  quartz.  And  so  in 
many  cases  this  property  adds  greatly  to  the  probability 
based  upon  the  crystallization. 

Again,  there  are  certain  lines  of  direction  along  which 
some  minerals  will  always  crack  or  cleave,  and  sometimes  in 
only  one  direction  as  in  the  case  of  mica — commonly  called 
isinglass.  Lime  carbonate,  in  certain  translucent  forms,  or 
transparent  as  spoken  of  already,  possesses  the  property  of 
cleaving,  or  breaking  in  more  than  one  direction  even  when 
pounded  with  a  hammer.  Each  separate  particle  will  assume 
two  acute  solid  angles  and  two  obtuse,  or  an  acute  edge  and 
an  obtuse  one,  even  though  the  particles  be  microscopic. 
This  tendency  to  break  or  cleave  in  certain  directions  is 
called  CLEAVAGE.  Some  minerals,  as  quartz,  for  instance, 
can  barely  be  made  to  cleave  at  all.  This,  therefore,  is 
another  characteristic  whereby  a  decision  may  be  formed. 

It  is  plain,  moreover,  that  any  one  of  the  above-mentioned 
minerals,  if  struck  sufficiently  hard  with  a  hammer,  would, 
after  breaking,  present  a  characteristic  surface  to  the  eye ; 
quartz,  like  glass,  which  it  goes  to  form,  would  break  with 
an  irregular,  or  conchoidal  fracture ;  mica  would  break  into 
minute  leaves,  or  tables,  and  leave  behind  on  the  parent 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PREPARATION.  5 

crystal  a  flat  surface ;  lime  carbonate  an  irregular  and  pointed 
surface,  or  with  angular  cracks  as  above  mentioned,  or,  in 
some  way,  the  mineral  would,  to  the  experienced  and  long- 
trained  eye,  show  some  characteristic  difference,  and  this 
would  be  called  the  FRACTURE,  which  is  closely  allied  in  some 
minerals  to  CLEAVAGE. 

Among  the  useful  minerals,  COLOR  has  much  to  do  in  de- 
termining the  nature  of  the  substance ;  color,  as  seen  upon 
the  natural  surface,  and  also  color  as  seen  when  that  surface 
is  scratched  with  a  knife  or  file,  so  that  fine  powder  is  made 
of  the  mineral  at  the  part  so  scratched,  or  better,  if  the  min- 
eral is  not  too  hard,  by  drawing  it  across  a  piece  of  unglazed 
porcelain.  This  powdered  line  is  called  the  STREAK.  Thus 
a  lime  carbonate  rhomb  may  be  perfectly  transparent,  and, 
yet,  when  scratched,  the  powder  will  be  white.  Some  min- 
erals look  black,  but  their  powder  or  streak  is  green,  and 
some  may  be  almost  black  or  amethystine  and  the  streak  be 
white ;  others,  as  in  magnetic  ore,  are  black  and  give  a  true 
black  powder.  STREAK,  therefore,  is  another  important  char- 
acteristic. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  is  a  characteristic  of  great  importance, 
especially  in  mining  mineralogy,  and  when  the  material  is 
nearly  homogeneous.  The  simplest  way  of  determining  spe- 
cific gravity  is  by  means  of  an  accurate  pair  of  scales,  and 
with  the  use  of  pure  rain-water  of  about  60°  F.  temperature. 
Specific  gravity  is  the  comparison  of  the  weight  of  any  min- 
eral mass  or  bulk  with  that  of  an  equal  mass  or  bulk  of  pure 
water.  It  is  plain  that  if  whatever  that  mineral  mass  weighs 
out  of  water  be  divided  by  the  weight  of  a  bulk  of  water 
equal  to  that  of  the  mineral,  the  quotient  will  express  the 
relation  desired,  or  what  is  called  the  specific  gravity  for  that 


6  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

mass.  When  that  mass,  therefore,  is  submerged  in  water,  it 
displaces  exactly  its  own  bulk  of  water,  the  weight  of  which 
is  taken  from  the  weight  of  the  mass  by  the  buoyancy  of  the 
water  ;  hence  if  the  weight  of  the  mass  in  water  be  taken  from 
its  weight  out  of  water,  it  will  leave  the  weight  of  that  bulk  of 
water  which  is  exactly  equal  to  the  bulk  of  the  mineral. 
Having  now  that  weight  of  the  displaced  water,  we  can  divide 
it  into  the  weight  of  the  mineral  out  of  water,  and  get  its  rela- 
tion to  the  weight  of  water  of  equal  bulk.  This  is  the  reason 
for  the  rule  for  finding  specific  gravity,  namely :  Divide  the 
weight  of  the  mineral  by  the  difference  of  its  weight  in  and 
out  of  water,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  mineral. 

Of  course,  the  more  delicate  the  scales,  the  less  in  size  need 
be  the  mass  and  the  more  accurate  will  be  the  specific  gravity 
found.  It  will  sometimes  occur  that  the  mineral,  especially  if 
it  be  rough,  retains  some  bubbles  of  air  upon  its  surface 
materially  altering  the  weight  in  water.  To  prevent  this, 
dip  the  mass  in  alcohol  (if  not  soluble  in  it,  in  any  way)  and, 
afterward,  in  the  water  which  is  to  be  used  for  determining 
the  specific  gravity.  Care  should  be  had  in  suspending  the 
mineral  by  very  light  threads,  silk  threads,  horse  hair,  or 
human  hair,  or  fine  copper  wire,  according  to  the  size  and 
weight  of  the  mineral.  Practice  will  give  the  operator  such 
great  skill  in  determining  the  specific  gravity  of  minerals, 
that  where  the  mass  is  of  the  size  of  the  fist,  and  can  be 
readily  poised  in  the  hand,  its  weight  and  specific  gravity 
may  be  closely  approximated.  Thus  the  mineral  barytes 
(sulphate),  or  barite,  frequently  appears  in  masses,  white, 
somewhat  crystalline,  and  to  the  inexperienced  resembling 
lime  carbonate,  but  a  piece  taken  into  the  hand  is  imme- 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PREPARATION.  7 

diately  suspected  by  its  great  weight,  being  in  some  varieties 
twice  as  heavy  as  lime  carbonate.  There  is  no  better  method, 
at  least  none  more  accurate,  for  determing  the  bulk  of  a  body 
than  by  weighing  the  water  displaced,  as  it  matters  not  how 
irregular  the  mass  may  be  in  surface,  the  water  will  register 
accurately  all  irregularities.  Thus,  if  it  is  desired  to  ascer- 
tain the  bulk  or  volume  of  the  hand,  take  a  glass  jar  or  other 
vessel,  and  fill  it  with  water  to  the  extreme  edge  of  the  rim. 
If  the  glass  be  about  7  inches  high  and  12  inches  in  circum- 
ference outside,  it  will  hold  about  1350  grammes  of  rain- 
water, and  be  a  convenient  size  for  the  trial.  Remove  it  from 
the  scales,  after  carefully  weighing,  and  introduce  the  hand 
to  about  the  lower  edge  of  the  wrist  bone.  This  will  cause 
an  overflow  of  water  equal  in  volume  to  that  of  the  hand. 
Remove  the  hand,  wipe  the  glass  outside  and  replace  the 
glass  in  the  scales  with  its  remaining  water,  and  weigh  it 
again.  Subtract  the  latter  weight  from  the  former  and  you 
have  the  exact  amount  of  water  displaced  and  the  bulk  of  the 
hand  as  introduced.  Now  if  you  know  the  weight  of  a  cubic 
inch  of  that  water  displaced,  divide  the  cubic  inch  weight 
into  the  weight  of  the  bulk  displaced,  and  you  have  the  exact 
size  or  bulk  of  the  hand.  As  an  example  in  an  actual  case  of 
a  medium  hand  of  a  man  whose  height  was  medium — 

Glass  full  of  water  =  1338  grammes 

Glass  after  introduction  of  the  hand  =         942          " 


loss  396  grammes 

=  weight  of  the  hand  volume  of  water.     The  volume  of  this 
amount  may  be  found  thus  : — 

252.432  grains  of  pure  rain-water  =  16.359  grammes  = 
weight  of  one  cubic  inch  of  water  at  60°  F.  and  30  inches 


8  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

height  of  barometer.  We  need  not  be  so  accurate  in  this 
case,  so  we  may  say  that  a  cubic  inch  of  pure  rain-water 
weighs  16  grammes,  therefore  396  grammes  divided  by  16 
gives  24  cubic  inches,  accurately  24.7  cubic  inches,  as  the 
cubical  size  of  the  hand.  Now,  as  human  flesh  and  bone  is 
only  a  little  over  the  specific  gravity  of  water,  we  may  con- 
sider the  hand  as  1.1,  or  one-tenth  heavier  than  the  same 
bulk  of  water,  so  that,  as  396  +  39.6  =  435.6  grammes,  and 
as  the  latter  amount  in  grains,  at  15.432  grains  to  one 
gramme,  equals  6722  grains,  and  as  437.5  grains  are  equal  to 
one  ounce  of  avoirdupois,  we  shall  have  15.36  ounces  as  the 
weight  of  a  man's  hand,  or  nearly  15 J  ounces  in  this  case. 
The  medium  hand  of  a  child  displaces  about  222  grammes, 
and  is  about  8  ounces  and  nearly  six-tenths  of  an  ounce. 
This  is  only  approximate  in  the  details,  but  exhibits  the 
method  and  suggests  some  uses. 

When  great  accuracy  is  required,  it  is  necessary  to  obtain 
carefully  distilled  water;  make  the  temperature  60°  F.  and 
make  corrections  of  barometer  for  any  variation  from  30 
inches  of  height,  for  it  is  seldom  that  the  barometer  is  at  that 
height.  In  most  cases  the  latter  variation  is  not  very  import- 
ant, and  indeed  attention  to  it  may  be  entirely  neglected 
except  where  standard  trials  and  corrections  of  standards  are 
to  be  made :  and  the  same  is  true  in  regard  to  water ;  good, 
clear,  and  pure  rain-water  may  be  used  for  most  trials  at  any 
temperature  between  50°  and  75°  F.,  without  much  inaccu- 
racy, for  it  is  seldom  that  any  two  minerals  of  even  the  same 
species  are  of  exactly  the  same  specific  gravity,  or  so  nearly 
the  same  as  to  require  the  accurate  determination  with  dis- 
tilled water,  temperature  60°  and  barometrical  height  of  30 
inches. 


PRINCIPLES    AND    PREPARATION.  9 

If  we  take  the  specific  gravity  of  water  in  a  thousand-grain 
bottle,  which  is  the  best  for  ordinary  delicate  scales,  at  52° 
and  at  80°  F.,  the  difference  will  be  but  small ;  thus,  with  an 
extremely  delicate  pair  of  Queen  &  Co's  scales,  we  took  the 
specific  gravity  of  1000  grains  good  rain-water  at  52°  F.  and 
its  weight  was  found  to  be  64.775  grammes.  The  water  was 
again  taken  in  a  few  minutes  at  79°  F.,  when  it  was  found  to 
be  64.604,  being  a  difference  of  not  quite  0.28  per  cent.,  not 
quite  three-tenths  of  one  per  cent.  On  heating  to  95°  F.,  the 
weight  decreased  to  64.378  grammes  or  0.62  of  1  per  cent., 
and  on  continuing  heating  to  99°,  we  may  say  100°  (as  the 
temperatures  were  not  taken  till  immediately  after  the  weight 
was  taken),  the  weight  was  then  decreased  to  64.333  grammes, 
equal  to  about  0.69,  or  nearly  0.7  of  one  per  cent.  In  all 
these  trials  the  barometer  remained  at  the  same  height, 
namely,  28.27  inches. 

Now,  if  we  take  the  same  water,  we  may  find  the  differ- 
ence more  important  when  we  wish  to  find  the  specific  grav- 
ity of  a  mineral  or  metal,  under  differing  degrees  of  temper- 
ature. The  following  actual  experiment  will  illustrate  the 
variations.  A  piece  of  native  silver  from  mines  near  Onta- 
nagon,  Lake  Superior,  was  introduced  into  the  water  at  a 
temperature  of  40°  F.  at  first,  and  the  following  table  will 
show  the  variations  afterward  as  the  temperature  was  in- 
creased : — 

Per  cent,  of 

Increase.        increase. 
Water  at    40°       Specific  gravity      7.775 

Water  at    61.5°          "  "  7.817  .042  .540 

Water  at    79°  "  "  8.077  .260  3.326 

Water  at  105°  "  "  8.639  .562  6.958 

We  have  taken  temperatures  at  about  20°  F.  increase  for 


10  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

each  experiment,  and  it  will  readily  be  seen,  that  after  60°, 
the  increased  temperature  of  the  water  rapidly  increases  the 
specific  gravity.  The  piece  of  native  silver  had  a  little  native 
copper  in  its  irregular  and  rugged  sides  which  decreased  the 
specific  gravity.  When  the  native  silver  is  entirely  free  from 
other  metals  its  specific  gravity  is  generally  9.5  to  10,  and 
when  pure,  10.5. 

It  is  plain  that  care  must  be  taken  in  proportion  to  the 
degree  of  accuracy  desired,  and,  from  the  above  remarks  and 
illustrations,  the  student  may  be  able  to  form  his  own  judg- 
ment as  to  the  degree  of  care  to  be  taken  in  finding  any 
specific  gravity. 

A  practical  knowledge  of  this  subject  becomes,  on  some 
occasions,  of  very  great  importance  to  the  miner  and  artisan, 
or  builder.  A  block  of  stone  or  marble,  lump  of  coal,  ore, 
etc.,  may  be  weighed  without  scales,  for  if  we  know  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  material  we  can  compare  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  the  mass  we  wish  to  weigh  with  the  same  mass  of 
water,  and  we  shall  learn  its  weight.  Thus,  I  have  a  rect- 
angular block  of  marble  five  feet  long  and  three  feet  high, 
being  three  broad,  or  wide,  sides  all  straight :  now  5x3 
—  15  x  3  —  45  cubic  feet.  I  find  that  the  specific  gravity 
of  that  marble  is  2.5,  that  is,  it  is  more  than  twice  as  heavy 
as  water  by  0.5.  Now  a  cubic  foot  of  pure  water  weighs  very 
nearly  62 \  pounds,  and  twice  and  a  half  62  J  pounds  are 
156.25  pounds  to  every  cubic  foot  of  the  marble,  which 
weight  multiplied  by  45  =  7031  pounds  weight  for  that 
block  of  marble.  Different  specimens  of  the  same  species  of 
ore  may  vary  in  specific  gravity,  in  which  case  a  small  piece 
may  be  broken  off  and  its  specific  gravity  determined,  from 
which  the  weight  of  the  mass  may  be  determined.  But  the 


THE    BLOWPIPE.  11 

sides  of  the  block  may  be  uneven  and  greater  care  must  then 
be  taken  in  measuring. 

THE   BLOWPIPE. 

Another  very  important  aid  in  determining  mineral  sub- 
stances is  that  furnished  by  the  BLOWPIPE. 

The  philosophy  of  its  action  depends  largely  upon  the 
fact  that  the  usual  candle  flame,  and  somewhat  similar 
flames,  may,  by  means  of  the  blowpipe,  be  directed  upon  an 
assay  in  minute  pieces,  so  that  either  that  part  called  the 
inner  flame,  or  that  called  the  outer  flame,  may,  at  will,  be 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  mineral  to  be  assayed.  The  inner 
flame,  generally  that  of  bluish  hue,  is  the  deoxygenating 
flame  ;  the  outer,  the  oxygenating  flame.  It  also  depends  for 
its  efficiency  upon  the  chemical  fact  that  some  minerals  are 
readily  altered,  under  certain  conditions,  in  color,  form,  or 
composition,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  flame  directed 
upon  them. 

Blowpipes  should  be  neat  and  small,  or  light  and  not  com- 
plicated. Any  practicer  can,  and  should,  learn  to  blow  with- 
out introducing  any  saliva  into  his  blowpipe.  This  result 
can  always  be  accomplished ;  hence,  all  bulbs,  reservoirs, 
etc.,  upon  the  blowpipe,  are  unnecessary  complications. 
Charcoal  should  be  cut  from  pieces  made  from  young 
branches  of  any  wood  which  is  hard  and  close-grained,  and 
may  be  cut  in  blocks  an  inch  square  and  as  thick,  or  into 
slips  or  rods,  two  or  three  inches  long  and  half  to  three- 
quarters  inch  wide,  and  half  as  thick ;  one  end  to  be  covered 
with  paper,  pasted  on,  or  wrapped  around  after  being  wet, 
and  then  gummed  along  an  edge.  The  square  blocks  may 
be  wired,  or,  in  travelling,  held  on  the  point  of  a  wire,  or 


12  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

knife  blade.  We  are  now  regarding  strictly  the  simplest 
efficient  collection  of  materials  for  blowpipe  practice. 

A  candle  is  sufficient,  or  a  little  tin  lamp  for  either  alcohol 
or  sweet  oil ;  a  cork,  with  a  hole  in  the  cork,  and  fitting 
over  the  wick  tube,  will  answer  the  demands,  even  with  alco- 
hol, pretty  well.  A  glass  stoppered  alcoholic  lamp  is  larger 
and  better  looking  and  preferable,  if  it  is  to  be  used  at  home, 
or  can  be  safely  kept  in  the  box  of  the  travelling  student,  or 
mineralogist. 

The  flame  of  a  candle,  and  equally  so  that  of  gas  or  of  an 
oil  lamp,  burning  under  ordinary  circumstances,  consists  01 
three  distinct  parts,  viz.:  1st,  a  dark  nucleus  in  the  centre; 
2d,  a  luminous  cone  surrounding  this  nucleus ;  and  3d,  a 
feebly  luminous  mantle  encircling  the  whole  flame.  The 
dark  nucleus  is  formed  by  the  gases  which  the  heat  evolves 
from  the  tallow  or  oil,  and  which  cannot  burn  here  for  want 
of  oxygen.  In  the  luminous  cone  these  gases  come  in  contact 
with  a  certain  amount  of  air,  insufficient  for  their  complete 
combustion.  In  this  part,  therefore,  it  is  principally  the 
hydrogen  of  the  carbides  of  hydrogen  evolved,  which  burns, 
while  the  carbon  separates  in  a  state  of  intense  ignition,  thus 
imparting  to  the  flame  the  highly  luminous  appearance  ob- 
served. In  the  outer  coat  the  access  of  air  is  no  longer 
limited,  and  all  the  gases  not  yet  burned  are  consumed  here. 
This  part  of  the  flame  is  the  hottest ;  oxidizable  bodies  oxidize 
therefore  with  the  greatest  possible  rapidity  when  placed  in  it, 
since  all  the  conditions  of  oxidization  are  here  united,  viz.: 
high  temperature  and  an  unlimited  supply  of  oxygen.  This 
outer  part  of  the  flame  is  therefore  called  the  oxidizing  flame. 

On  the  other  hand,  oxides  having  a  tendency  to  yield  up 
their  oxygen,  suffer  reduction  when  placed  within  the  lumi- 


THE    BLOWPIPE.  13 

nous  part  of  the  flame,  the  oxygen  being  withdrawn  from 
them  by  the  carbon  and  the  still  uncoiisumed  carbide  of 
hydrogen  present  in  this  sphere.  The  luminous  part  of  the 
flame  is  therefore  called  the  reducing  flame.  The  effect  of 
blowing  a  fine  current  of  air  across  the  flame  is,  first,  to  alter 
the  shape  of  the  latter,  which,  from  tending  upward,  is  now 
driven  sideways  in  the  direction  of  the  blast,  and  at  the  same 
time  lengthened  and  narrowed ;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to 
extend  the  sphere  of  combustion  from  the  outer  to  the  inner 
part.  As  the  latter  circumstance  causes  an  extraordinary 
increase  of  the  heat  of  the  flame,  and  the  former  a  concentra- 
tion of  that  heat  within  narrower  limits,  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand the  exceedingly  energetic  action  of  the  blowpipe  flame. 
The  way  of  holding  the  blowpipe,  and  the  nature  of  the  cur- 
rent, will  always  depend  upon  the  precise  object  in  view,  viz.: 
whether  the  operator  wants  a  reducing  or  an  oxidizing  flame. 
The  task  of  keeping  the  blowpipe  steadily  in  the  proper 
position  may  be  greatly  facilitated  by  resting  the  instrument 
firmly  upon  some  movable  metallic  support. 

The  reducing  flame  is  produced  by  keeping  the  tip  of  the 
blow-pipe  just  on  the  border  of  a  tolerable  strong  gas-flame, 
and  driving  a  moderate  blast  across  it.  The  resulting  mix- 
ture of  the  air  with  the  gas  is  imperfect,  and  there  remains 
between  the  inner  bluish  part  of  the  flame,  and  the  outer 
barely  visible  part,  a  luminous  and  reducing  zone,  of  which 
the  hottest  point  lies  somewhat  beyond  the  apex  of  the  inner 
cone. 

To  produce  the  oxidizing  flame,  the  gas  is  lowered,  the  tip 
of  the  blowpipe  pushed  a  little  further  into  the  flame,  and  the 
strength  of  the  current  somewhat  increased.  This  serves  to 
effect  an  intimate  mixture  of  the  air  and  gas,  and  an  inner 


14  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

pointed  bluish  cone,  slightly  luminous  towards  the  apex,  is 
formed  and  surrounded  by  a  thin,  pointed,  light  bluish, 
barely  visible  mantle.  The  hottest  part  of  the  flame  is  at  the 
apex  of  the  inner  cone.  Bodies  fusible  with  difficulty  are 
exposed  to  this  part  to  effect  their  fusion  ;  but  bodies  to  be 
oxidized  are  held  a  little  beyond  the  apex,  that  there  may  be 
no  want  of  air  for  their  combustion. 

Common  sal-soda,  which  has  stood  exposed  to  the  air  till 
it  has  effloresced,  is  a  very  good  soda  salt,  and,  though  not 
always  pure,  may  be  obtained  so  nearly  pure  as  to  serve  for 
most  purposes  as  a  soda  carbonate. 

Borax  should  be  pulverized,  so  that  it  may  be  picked  up 
by  the  loop  of  the  platinum  wire. 

Platinum  wire  should  be  nearly  as  thin  as  an  ordinary 
horse-hair,  or  thinner,  and  may  be  wrapped  around  a  little 
hard-wood  stem  for  a  handle,  as  large  round  as  an  ordinary 
match,  and,  indeed,  the  loop  at  the  end  may  be  formed  by 
placing  the  end  of  the  wire  against  a  round  match  and  roll- 
ing both  round  between  finger  and  thumb,  and,  when  the 
loop  has  been  formed,  the  match  may  be  drawn  awray  through 
the  wire,  leaving  the  loop. 

Microcosmic  salt,  the  usual  name  of  phosphate  of  soda  and 
ammonia,  may  be  made  by  gently  heating  together  (in  dis- 
tilled water)  100  parts,  by  weight,  of  crystallized  phosphate 
of  soda  with  16  parts  chloride  of  ammonium,  or  clean  sal 
ammoniac,  filter  and  evaporate  and  preserve  the  crystals  in 
a  bottle.  This  salt,  when  heated,  has  the  power  of  dissolv- 
ing almost  every  chemical  compound. 

The  above,  with  four  or  five  inches  of  small  hard  glass 
tubing,  the  size  of  a  large  goose-quill,  comprise  the  essentials 
for  beginning  the  experiments  with  the  blowpipe,  and,  in- 


•     PREPARATORY    PRACTICE.  15 

deed,  for  the  usual  work  of  the  student  it  would  be  better  to 
get  nothing  more  until  he  is  expert  in  the  use  of  these  alone. 

PREPARATORY  PRACTICE 

with  the  BLOWPIPE  demands  more  or  less  time  with  different 
individuals ;  but  apparent  lack  of  skillfulness  at  first  use  is 
no  proof  that  the  practicer  will  not  become  an  expert. 

HINTS. — Any  strange  taste  invites  saliva ;  after  awhile  the 
presence  of  the  blowpipe  becomes  no  longer  singular,  but 
easy  and  natural,  and  the  student  may  use  for  hours  an  in- 
strument without  any  trouble  from  saliva,  and  his  practice 
be  clean  and  taste  perfectly  natural. 

A  small  loop  picks  up  so  much  of  the  reagent  as  can  be 
easily  managed  under  the  usual  blowpipe  flame  and  practice 
which  should  be  adopted  at  the  time  of  the  first  experiments. 
Too  large  a  "  bead  "  results  from  too  large  a  loop,  and  this 
fatigues  the  operator  not  only,  but  the  reduction  of  the 
mineral  cannot,  in  the  same  time,  be  so  perfect,  and,  hence, 
not  so  satisfactory,  especially  to  the  beginner. 

Learn  to  blow  easily  and  continuously.  The  only  method 
we  can  suggest  to  aid  in  learning  this  art  is,  first,  to  take  the 
mouth  full  of  water  and,  holding  it,  breathe  regularly  en- 
tirely through  the  nose  by  inhalation  and  exhalation.  Next, 
discharge  the  water  and  do  the  same  with  the  mouth  full  of 
air,  allowing  a  very  little  to  escape  all  the  time.  Next  is  the 
supplying  of  air  to  this  reservoir  of  mouth  and  cheek.  This 
is  an  art  so  concealed  in  the  mouth  that  no  teacher  can  ex- 
actly instruct  any  student  to  accomplish  the  work  so  well  as 
he  can  learn  by  a  little  practice.  After  a  while  the  strange 
lesson  becomes  perfectly  easy.  Continuous  blowing,  or  rather 
a  continuous  stream  of  air,  is  necessary  in  some  experiments 


16  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

for  keeping  the  inner,  or  deoxygeiiating  flame  constantly  on 
the  object  to  be  deprived  of  its  oxygen,  or,  as  we  shall  call  it, 
the  "  assay;"  for,  if  the  outer  flame  touches  the  assay,  it  will 
again  be  oxygenated,  and,  vice  versa,  the  rapid  oxygenating 
of  an  assay  requiring  constant  blowing  without  intermission. 
For  this  and  other  reasons  the  ability  to  blow  a  constant 
flame  is  desirable. 

FOR  PRACTICE. — Upon  an  even  part  of  a  close-grained 
piece  of  charcoal,  place,  with  the  end  of  a  pen-knife,  a  little 
common  litharge  (lead  oxide)  and  the  same  amount  of  car- 
bonate of  soda.  Turn  the  inner  flame  (hereafter  written 
I.  F.)  very  gently  upon  it,  and  you  will  soon  succeed  in  re- 
ducing it  to  metallic  lead,  and,  for  practice,  see  if  the  lead 
can  be  kept  in  a  metallic  globule  by  continuing  the  I.  F. 
Turn  the  outer  flame  (hereafter  written  0.  F.)  upon  it  and 
volatilize  the  lead,  and  partly  by  changing  it  back  into  lead 
oxide,  leaving  an  outer  rim  or  border  upon  the  charcoal  of  a 
dingy  yellowish  brown  (lead  oxide).  Study  this  color  as  the 
"  lead-orange." 

Place  upon  a  similar  piece  of  coal  in  a  similar  way  a  piece 
of  metallic  zinc.  Turn  the  0.  F.  upon  it ;  notice  the  pecu- 
liar flaky  specks  and  minute  detachments ;  notice,  also,  the 
peculiar  canary-yellow  which  the  flaky  masses  assume  and 
retain  while  hot,  and  which  becomes  changed  to  pure  white 
on  cooling ;  notice,  also,  the  peculiar  phosphorescence  which 
the  flaky  mass  or  oxide  of  zinc  assumes  when  strongly  heated. 
Try  a  little  tin  and  notice  that  although  it  leaves  a  white 
oxide,  it  is  the  same,  hot  or  cold,  and  has  no  phosphor- 
escence. Take  the  platinum  wire ;  make  a  loop,  heat  the 
loop  bright  red-hot,  and  quickly  dip  it  into  powdered  borax ; 
turn  the  flame  (either  0.  or  I.)  upon  the  mass ;  notice  the 


PREPARATORY    PRACTICE.  17 

intumescence  due  to  escaping  of  the  "water  of  crystalliza- 
tion ;"  blow  till  the  bead  becomes  pure  and  entirely  trans- 
parent and  absolutely  colorless.  If  there  is  the  slightest 
tinge  the  borax  bead  is  impure,  and  the  cause  must  be  sought 
for — if  in  the  borax,  a  fresh  supply  of  better  borax  must  be  got. 
Dip  the  platinum  loop  (newly  provided  with  a  clear  borax 
bead,  as  last  mentioned,  or  heat  the  same  bead  last  made,  if 
clean  and  clear)  into  a  little  charcoal  dust,  or  blow  a  little 
smoke  of  the  flame  upon  it ;  then  turn  the  0.  F.  upon  it  and 
burn  it  clean  and  clear,  and  remember  that  any  organic  mat- 
ter may  be  thus  burned,  or  oxidized  by  the  oxygenating 
flame  (0.  F.),  until  the  black  entirely  disappears.  Heat  the 
bead  once  more  to  a  red  heat ;  have  prepared  beforehand  a 
speck  of  black  oxide  of  manganese,  about  the  size  of  the 
point  of  a  pin,  upon  a  piece  of  glass,  or,  better,  broken  por- 
celain plate ;  quickly  press  the  red-hot  bead  upon  the  speck 
of  oxide  of  manganese,  turn  the  0.  F.  upon  it,  watching 
sharply  the  red-hot,  or  white-hot,  bead,  and  notice  that  the 
circulating  oxide  is  gradually  becoming  mixed  with  the 
borax,  and  the  bead  has  a  peculiar  homogeneous  dark  red- 
dish appearance ;  stop  and  hold  before  a  white  sheet  or  wall, 
or  up  to  a  strong  light ;  the  color  is  amethystine ;  this  is  the 
"  characteristic  color "  of  manganese,  if  not  too  much  adul- 
terated with  iron  or  other  metals :  study  this  color.  Then 
turn  the  I.  F.  (deoxygeiiating  flame)  upon  the  same  bead ; 
watch  the  bead  in  the  flame ;  it  acquires  a  kind  of  reddish 
transparency,  and  a  little  attention  will  enable  the  student 
to  see  a  decided  change,  and,  if  the  deoxygenation  has  taken 
place,  then,  on  cooling,  the  bead  will  be  perfectly  colorless. 
Now  heat  red-hot,  as  at  first,  but  with  the  0.  F.,  and  after  a 
short  time  the  color  returns ;  touch  the  red-hot  ball  to 
2 


18  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

another  speck  of  manganese  oxide  and  thoroughly  oxygen- 
ize. On  cooling  it  is  darker ;  repeat  the  process  of  adding 
till  the  bead,  after  cooling  from  the  0.  F.  is  almost  black  ; 
heat,  now,  red-hot,  and,  while  hot,  mash  the  bead  flat  against 
the  glass  plate,  or  any  hard  surface,  and  with  the  stem  of  the 
blowpipe.  Hold  it  up  to  the  light  and  notice  that,  although 
apparently  black,  it  is  now  transparent  and  deep  violet  or 
amethystine  :  remember  this  process  for  future  beads. 

To  remove  the  bead,  notice  which  part  of  the  loop  has  the 
end  of  the  wire,  turn  that  end  uppermost,  then,  holding  the 
wire  stem  firmly  with  the  left  hand,  and  pinching  the  cold 
bead  firmly  between  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand, 
draw  the  bead  away  from  the  left  hand,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  right  hand  are  turned  over 
from  the  left  to  the  right ;  the  loop  will  thereby  be  opened, 
and  the  wire  will  leave  the  bead  in  the  grasp  of  the  fingers 
while  the  wire  is  being  straightened  out.  A  little  practice 
will  enable  the  pupil  to  become  expert  in  removing  the  beads, 
which  may  be  preserved  in  a  little  clear,  glass  dram  vial  for 
reference.  If  not  desired  for  the  future,  and  there  is  no  haste 
to  rid  the  wire  of  them,  the  beads  may  be  either  melted  and 
instantly  jarred  off,  or  the  wire  may  be  dropped  into  a  glass 
of  water,  and  in  about  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  the  bead  will 
dissolve  off. 

Lenses  are  frequently  necessary,  either  in  the  form  of 
pocket  single  lenses  of  half  an  inch  or  one  inch  focus  (the 
latter  power  is  most  used),  or  the  finer  style  of  compound 
lenses  in  brass  or  other  metal  case.  Caution :  Never  reduce 
a  metal  upon  platinum  wire,  as  the  heat  will  cause  the  metal 
to  alloy  with  the  platinum,  and  the  alloy  will  melt  and  the 
wire  be  injured.  In  using  borax  the  reduced  metal  may 


PREPARATORY    PRACTICE.  19 

sometimes  be  kept  off  the  wire,  as  when  the  experiment  with 
litharge  was  made,  but  it  is  not  safe.  Use  charcoal. 

MAGNETISM  is  a  help  in  determining  some  minerals,  and 
the  most  convenient  method  of  applying  it  is  by  means  of  a 
little  pocket  compass,  or  a  magnetized  pocket-knife  blade,  by 
which  any  small  speck  of  supposed  magnetic  sand,  or  other 
ore,  may  be  determined  instantly,  at  home  or  wherever  the 
mineralogist  may  be  travelling. 

We  would  advise  the  learner  to  experiment,  as  above 
directed,  until  quite  expert,  before  trying  to  proceed  upon  the 
blowpipe  indications  hereafter  stated. 

CUPELLATION. — This  strictly  belongs  to  the  separation  of 
some  metals,  but  the  practical  mineralogist  frequently  needs 
the  knowledge  of  the  process,  and  he  may  make  great  use  of 
it  in  determining  the  nature  and  comparative  value  of  some 
ores.  Even  with  the  blowpipe  the  process  is  frequently  useful. 

A  cupel  is  the  common  name  for  a  circular  block  of  bone- 
ash  with  a  small  depression  in  the  upper  surface.  It  may 
be  of  any  size  or  shape,  but  for  usual  assay  purposes  a  cupel 
is  generally  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  and  half  an  inch 
thick,  and  cupels  may  be  obtained  so  readily  at  any  manu- 
facturing chemist's  salesroom  that  it  is  not  economy  to  make 
them,  and  they  can  be  sent  and  received  by  mail.  When 
these  cupels  are  sufficiently  heated  (red-hot)  with  a  little  lead, 
they  have  the  property  of  absorbing  the  lead,  which  is 
changed  into  the  form  of  a  liquid  lead  oxide.  At  the  same 
time  any  melted  gold  or  silver  which  was  in  the  lead  remains 
upon  the  surface  of  the  cupel  in  the  shape  of  a  bright  ball  or 
button,  which  brightens  instantly  when  the  lead  has  en- 
tirely disappeared  from  its  surface. 

It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to  have  a  furnace  prepared  to 


20  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

receive  an  arched  clay  box,  or  small  chamber  called  "a 
muffle,"  which  shall  be  fitted  to  receive  the  cupels,  so  as  to 
protect  them  from  the  surrounding  fire  when  the  muffle  is 
heated  to  a  low  red  heat. 

Of  eourse,  in  the  convenience  of  the  laboratory,  and  at 
home,  the  best  method  is  to  obtain  the  small  clay  furnace 
already  prepared  for  this  purpose.  But  where  this  furnace 
cannot  be  had,  a  cylindrical  sheet-iron  stove  will  answer ; 
line  it  with  even  the  common  red  bricks ;  put  the  draft  door 
below  and  the  grate  just  above  it,  with  a  hole  (ten  or  twelve 
inches  above  the  grate)  sufficiently  large  for  the  entrance  of 
the  muffle,  and  a  small  hole  broken,  before  lining,  in  the 
brick  lining  opposite  the  hole,  with  sufficient  length  upward 
of  the  sheet  iron  to  allow  the  covering  of  the  muffle  above 
with  coal  to  a  height  of  at  least  four  inches,  and  have  a 
movable  cover  to  the  stove.  This  extemporized  furnace  will, 
with  a  practical  operator,  produce  all  that  can  be  desired. 
We  have,  for  years  used  such  a  furnace  with  excellent  results. 
The  figure  of  a  larger  furnace  for  crucible  work  as  well  as  for 
cupelling  is  given  at  the  close  of  the  description  of  reagents. 

When,  however,  the  assay  is  very  small  and  the  mineralo- 
gist chooses  to  use  his  blowpipe,  he  may  make  a  little  cavity 
in  his  charcoal  and  fill  it  with  bone-ash,  moistened  and 
pressed  neatly  down,  and  upon  this  he  may  separate  gold  or 
silver  from  the  lead,  and  with  a  little  pure  nitric  acid  in  a 
test-tube  dissolve  the  silver,  leaving  the  gold  deposit  as 
minute  dark  powder  at  the  bottom  of  his  test-tube,  to  be 
washed,  dried,  and  returned  to  the  charcoal,  and  melted  to 
a  globule  of  gold. 

In  Review. 

The  reader  should  know  that  we  have  presented  only  that 


PREPARATORY    PRACTICE.  21 

which  shall  be  of  most  practical  use  in  general,  but  particu- 
lar applications  will  be  given  hereafter.  Still  it  is,  for  more 
rapid  progress,  better  that  the  suggestions  already  made 
should  be  followed  out  in  actual  work.  No  amount  of  in- 
struction can  take  the  place  of  actual  experiment.  A  little 
practice  will  remove  apparent  difficulties.  Especially  are  the 
experiments  with  the  blowpipe  to  be  made,  until  a  degree 
of  expertness  is  acquired  before  attempting  to  proceed  to  the 
subsequent  parts  of  this  work. 

For  specific  gravity  a  pair  of  scales  may  commonly  be  used, 
which  may  be  loaded  to  the  amount  of  six  or  eight  ounces, 
and  sensitive  to  a  grain.  In  delicate  analyses  one  more 
sensitive  must  be  employed.  No  time,  at  first,  is  lost  by 
attempting  various  experiments  and  other  work,  since  ex- 
pertness in  the  use  of  apparatus  conduces  to  accuracy  and 
rapidity  when  useful  and  necessary  work  is  undertaken,  and 
such  expertness  is  to  be  acquired  only  by  practice. 

Out  of  the  vast  number  of  crystal-forms  only  compara- 
tively a  few  are  of  importance  to  the  mining  mineralogist, 
and  these  forms  are  best  studied  from  actual  specimens. 

But  after  all  knowledge  of  the  facts  stated  in  the  preced- 
ing pages,  many  minerals  are  found  which  require  other 
treatment  before  they  will  disclose  their  compositions,  either 
as  to  quality  or  quantity.  We  shall,  therefore,  proceed  to 
the  study  of  what  is  called  chemical  analysis,  stating  at  first 
certain  principles  a  knowledge  of  which  will  render  it  more 
easy  to  study  the  practice. 

All  material  substances  are  composed  of  a  limited  number 
of  what  are  supposed  to  be  simple  or  uncompounded  bodies 
called  elements.  At  present,  discovery  announces  only  about 
68.  In  useful  mineralogy  there  is  special  interest  in  only 
about  40. 


22  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

But  the  most  important  fact  connected  with  these  ele- 
ments is  that  they  combine  with  each  other  in  certain  defi- 
nite and  unalterable  proportions.  For  example,  iron  as  an 
element  is  not  only  purely  and  simply  iron,  but  when  it  com- 
bines with  the  element  oxygen,  it  does  so  in  a  proportion  of 
56  of  iron  to  16  of  oxygen,  never  in  less  proportion  than  56. 
If  more  iron  combines  with  oxygen  it  will  combine  only  as 
twice  56  or  112  to  a  multiple  of  16,  in  this  case  three  times 
16  or  48,  or  if  any  other  combination  it  always  acts  as  though 
56  was  its  characteristic  number.  So  it  is  with  oxygen  and 
the  number  16,  and  so  it  is  with  every  one  of  the  elements 
and  a  definite  number.  Each  element  has  its  own  unchange- 
able combining  number,  or  "atomic  weight." 

It  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  the  highest  value  to  determine 
the  combining  number  of  the  elements,  and  chemists  have  in 
some  cases  devoted  much  time  to  this  work. 

Taking  the  same  example  of  iron  and  oxygen,  the  union 
of  the  two  in  a  compound  mass  of  iron,  called  iron  oxide,  is 
precisely  as  though  the  mass  were  made  up  of  56  parts  of  iron 
and  16  parts  of  oxygen.  If  this  be  so  in  any  one  mass,  it 
becomes  very  easy,  by  finding  the  amount  of  one  element  in 
that  mass,  to  determine  the  amount  of  the  other.  Suppose  I 
find  that  the  element  iron  is  present  in  the  mass  of  pure  oxide 
of  iron  to  the  amount  of  a  certain  number  of  grains  or 
pounds,  then  the  oxygen  is  easily  found,  and  the  per  cent,  of 
pure  iron  to  the  mass,  as  we  shall  show  hereafter. 

Chemists  have  abbreviated  the  names  of  elements  by  sym- 
bols for  convenience  sake,  and  these  symbols  appear  in  the 
table  which  follows.  Combining  weights  are  sometimes 
called  atomic  weights  or  equivalents,  or  combining  numbers. 


WEIGHTS    OF    ELEMENTARY    BODIES. 


23 


Combining  Weights  of  Elementary  Bodies. 
Those  in  brackets  are  not  as  yet  applied  to  any  useful  purposes. 


Aluminium  .   .   .   .  Al  27.5  (?) 

Antimony   .   .   .   .  Sb  122.  (?) 

Arsenic As  75. 

Barium Ba  137.2 

Bismuth Bi  210. 

Boron Bo  11. 

Bromine Br  80. 

Cadmium Cd  112. 

Caesium Cs  133. 

Calcium Ca  40. 

Carbon C  12. 

Cerium Ce  92.2 

Chlorine Cl  35.5 

Chromium  .   .   .   .  Cr  52.5 

Cobalt Co  59. 

Columbium1    .   .   .  Cb  93.8 

Copper Cu  63.5 

[Didymium]2 .  .   .  Di  142.3 

[Erbium] E        ? 

Fluorine Fl      19. 

[Galium] ?         ? 

[Glucinum]  .  .   .   .  Gl       9. 

Gold Au  197. 

Hydrogen H        1. 

[Indium] In       74?  113.4? 

Iodine I  126.8 

Iridium Ir  198?  192? 

Iron Fe  56(55.91) 

[Lanthanum]  ...  La     92?  138.5. 

Lead Pb  207.   (206.4.) 

[Lithium] Li       7. 

Magnesium  ....  Mg  24. 

Manganese.   .   .   .  Mn  55(53.99?) 

Mercury Hg  200. 


Molybdenum.   .   .Mo    92?  95.5 

Nickel Ni     58.7?  57.9 

Nitrogen  .....  N       14. 
[Osmium]    .   .   .   .  Os    199.2?  198.5 

Oxygen O       16. 

Palladium   ....  Pa   106.6?  105.7 
Phosphorus  .  .   .   .  Ph     31. 

Platinum Pt    197?  194.4 

Potassium K      39.13?  39.01 

[Rhodium]  .  .   .   .  Rh  104.0 
[Rubidium] .  .   .   .  Rb     85.4 
[Ruthenium]  .  .   .  Ru  104. 
Samarium   ....  Sm    150. 
[Scandium]  .  .   .   .  Sc      44. 
[Selenium]  .   .   .   .  Se      79. 

Silicon Si      28.  28.2 

Silver Ag  108.  107.7 

Sodium Na     23. 

Strontium    .   .       .  Sr      87.5 

Sulphur S       32. 

[Tantalum]  .  .   .   .  Ta    182.6 
[Tellurium]  .  .   .  •  Te    129?  128 

Terbium Tb   159.5 

[Thallium]  .   .   .   .  Tl    203. 
[Thorium]   .   .   .    .  Th  233.4 

Tin Sn   118.  117,7 

Titanium Ti      50?  48 

Tungsten W    183. 

Uranium U     237?  238 

[Vanadium]    .   .   .V     137?  51.2 
[Ytterbium]    .   .   .  Yb  172.8 

[Yttrium] Y       89.8 

Zinc Zn     65. 

[Zirconium]  .  .   .   .  Zr     89.4 


1  This  term  has  priority  over  Niobium. 

2  Now  split  into  Neo-  and  Pyraso-Didymmm. 


24  MINERALS,  MINES    AND    MINING. 

Note. — Some  of  the  atomic  weights  in  this  list  are  taken 
from  the  most  recent  edition  of  Fresenius,  as  found  in  his 
quantitative  tables  in  the  recent  edition  by  Johnson.  But 
the  editor  of  that  treatise  doubts  the  weights  of  aluminium 
and  antimony,  and  thinks  that  they  should  be  120  and  27.2 
respectively,  but  as  they  have  been  used  as  122  and  27.50, 
these  numbers  are  retained.  Where  numbers  are  not  in  ac- 
cordance with  recent  discovery  we  have  added  the  more 
recent. 

Comparatively  few  of  the  68  elementary  bodies  have  had 
their  atomic  weights,  or  what  might  more  correctly  be  called 
their  combining  weights,  certainly  determined.  Perhaps 
those  which  have  been  accurately  determined  are  only  hydro- 
gen, oxygen,  nitrogen,  chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  lithium, 
potassium,  sodium,  silver,  and  thallium,  as  follows:  H  1,  O 
15.9633,  N  14.0210,  Cl  35.3700,  Br  79.7680,  I  126.5570,  Li 
7.0073,  K  39.0190,  Na  22.9980,  Ag  107.6750,  Tl  203.7150. 
Manganese  has  recently  been  determined  as  53.9  rather  than 
55  as  in  Fresenius,  and  molybdenum  95.5  instead  of  92. 
The  weights,  as  given  in  the  recent  edition  of  the  Enc.  Brit., 
"  Chemistry,"  are,  in  many  cases,  at  variance  with  more 
recent  examinations.  Our  list  is  as  nearly  accurate  as  can  be 
determined  at  present,  with  the  corrections  we  have  suggested 
above. 

THE  PRACTICAL  USE  OF  THE  TABLE  OF  ATOMIC 
WEIGHTS. 

The  student  may  as  easily  learn  to  compute  his  " sought" 
elements  from  his  "  found "  by  using  the  table  of  atomic 
weights,  as  by  the  use  of  any  other  table,  provided  that  he  be 
careful  in  his  calculations.  He  may  proceed  as  follows : — 


TABLE    OF    ATOMIC    WEIGHTS.  25 

Suppose  he  has  found  20  grains  to  be  the  weight  of  per- 
oxide of  iron  in  an  assay  (ferric  oxide)  Fe203,  and  he  seeks 
for  pure  iron.  In  the  table,  Fe  is  56,  Fe  x  2  =  112.  Ois 
16,  and  0  x  3  —  48.  Therefore  the  atomic  weight  of  Fe203, 
as  a  whole,  is  112  +  48,  or  160;  this  number  is  the  theoretic 
whole,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  100  per  cent,  of  which  100 
per  cent.  Fe2  is  the  part  sought.  So  the  proportion  is  160  : 
112  :  :  20  :  14  grains  for  actual  weight  of  iron;  or  160  :  112  :  : 
100  ;  70  for  simply  the  per  cent,  of  iron. 

Again,  the  per  cent,  of  any  one  compound  of  an  assay,  if 
known,  makes  it  easier  to  calculate  the  composition  of  the 
whole  assay.  This  per  cent,  the  assayer  might  readily  cal- 
culate from  the  table,  thus :  Fe203  is  the  ferric  oxide  found  of 
which  he  has  20  grains.  160  :  112  : :  100  :  x  ;  here  160  is  the 
theoretic  whole,  112  is  the  theoretic  iron  in  that  160  parts. 
Taking  160  as  the  100  per  cent.,  or  the  actual  whole,  x  is  the 
per  cent,  iron  sought.  Multiply  the  second  and  third  terms 
of  the  proportion,  112  X  100  =  11,200,  and  divide  by  the 
first  term  160,  and  we  have  70  as  the  per  cent,  sought.  So 
that  Fe203  always  has  70  per  cent.  iron.  If  70  per  cent,  is 
iron,  then  30  per  cent,  must  be  oxygen.  Let  us  test  this 
latter  element  merely  to  prove  the  first.  Then  160  :  48  :  : 
100  :  y  =  30;  now  as  70  +  30  =  100  the  proportion  is 
proved,  70  p.  c.  iron  +  30  p.  c.  oxygen  =  100.  Let  us  now 
take  a  very  complicated  illustration.  Thus,  suppose  the  com- 
pound found  is  a  hydrous  ammonium  salt  of  magnesia,  which 
has  been  precipitated,  when  we  wish  to  find  phosphoric  acid, 
or  phosphorus  in  an  iron  ore,  as  described  hereafter  under 
Iron.  The  precipitate  is  composed  of  NH4MgP02  -f  6H2O, 
and  is  ammonium  magnesium  phosphate,  a  white  crystalline 
powder.  When  obtained  it  is  heated  to  redness  to  drive  off 


26  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

all  the  volatile  parts,  which  are  ammonia  and  water,  and  the 
changed  remaining  salt  is  weighed  as  2MgO,P205,  from  which 
we  wish  to  get  the  P  and  the  Mg.  We  will  suppose  we  have 
found  20  grains,  and  the  P  and  Mg  are  to  be  found  from 
2MgO,P205.  MgO  is  24  +  16  =  40,  2MgO  is  therefore 
40  x  2  =  80  ;  P2  is  31  x  2  =  62  ;  and  05  is  16  x  5  =  80  ; 
62  +  80  =  142.  The  whole,  therefore,  is  80  +  142  =  222. 
222  :  62  :  :  100  :  27.92  phosphorus.  Of  Mg  the  proportion  to 
the  whole  is  80  to  222,  or  36.04  per  cent.,  for  222  :  80  :  :  100  : 
36.04.  Of  P205,  or  phosphoric  acid,  222  :  142  :  :  100  :  63.96  ; 
that  is,  the  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid  is  63.96.  Now, 
as  20  grains  were  found,  of  which  27.92  per  cent,  is  P, 
20  x  27.92  =  5.58  grains,  these  are  P.  From  these  exam- 
ples the  student  may  understand  how  to  find  the  weight  of 
any  salt  or  compound.  It  would  be  well  for  the  assayer  to 
make  a  table  of  per  cent,  for  the  chief  elements  in  which  he  is 
interested,  and  keep  it  before  him.  Having  the  per  cent,  he 
has  only  to  multiply  his  found  weight  by  the  per  cent,  to  get 
the  weight  of  the  element  sought.  Thus,  as  we  shall  here- 
after see,  we  frequently  have  Fe203  in  our  assays,  therefore 
note  that  this  means  70  per  cent,  iron  (Fe)  and  30  oxygen. 
So  treat  all  formulas  we  usually  obtain.  If  we  get  say  20 
grains  of  Fe^g,  20  x  .70  =  14.00  grains  Fe.  And  so  use  the 
per  cent,  of  P  and  Mg,  when  we  get  2MgO,P205,  and  any 
other  precipitate  usually  formed  in  course  of  work  hereafter. 
Form  a  table  and  use  it  without  calculation  afterward. 

THE  GROUPS. 

The  groupings  of  compounds  may  form  very  convenient 
classifications,  which  it  is  well  for  the  student  to  study  in 
their  relations  to  the  action  of  reagents. 


THE    GROUPS.  27 

FIRST  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  not  precipitated  from  their 
solutions  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  hydrosulphuret  of  am- 
monia, or  alkaline  carbonates.  These  are  the  alkalies  proper: 
Potassa,  soda,  lithia,  ammonia. 

SECOND  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  not  precipitated  from 
their  solutions  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  but  precipitated  by 
hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  only  under  certain  circumstances, 
as  salts,  and  also  precipitated  by  alkaline  carbonates.  These 
are  the  alkaline  earths:  Baryta,  strontia,  lime,  magnesia. 

THIRD  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  not  precipitated  by  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  but  precipitated  as  oxides  by  hydrosul- 
phuret of  ammonia,  Alumina,  glucina,  chromium  oxide, 
thorina,  yttria,  oxides  of  cerium,  zirconia,  titanic  acid,  tantalic 
acid. 

FOURTH  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  not  precipitated  from 
their  acid  solutions  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  but  com- 
pletely precipitated  by  hydrosulphuret  of  ammonia  as  sul- 
phurets.  Oxide  of  zinc,  oxide  of  nickel,  oxide  of  cobalt,  protoxide 
of  manganese,  protoxide  and  sesquioxide  of  iron,  and  sesquioxide 
of  uranium. 

FIFTH  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  completely  precipitated 
from  their  solutions,  whether  acid,  alkaline,  or  neutral,  by 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  their  sulphurets  being  insoluble  in 
alkaline  hydrosulphurets.  Oxide  of  lead,  oxide  of  silver,  oxides 
of  mercury,  oxide  of  bismuth,  oxide  of  cadmium,  oxide  of  copper, 
oxide  of  palladium,  sesquioxide  of  rhodium,  oxide  of  osmium. 

SIXTH  GROUP. — Metallic  oxides  completely  precipitated 
from  their  acid  solutions  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  but  not 
from  their  alkaline  solutions*  their  sulphurets  being  soluble 
in  alkaline  sulphurets.  Oxide  of  antimony,  oxide  of  arsenic, 
oxide  of  tin,  oxide  of  platinum,  oxide  of  iridium,  oxide  of  gold, 


28  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

oxides  of  selenium,  tellurium,  tungsten,  vanadium,  and  molybde- 
num. 

As  the  student  proceeds  he  may  readily  derive  great  help 
from  the  study  of  the  preceding  characteristics  of  metallic 
oxides,  and  we  shall  have  reason  to  refer  some  oxides  to 
these  groups  when  speaking  of  the  effect  of  certain  reagents 
upon  them. 

THE  REAGENTS. 

WATER. — Formula  H20.  Atomic  weight  18.  Only  the 
purest  water  should  be  used  for  the  finest  analyses.  Rain 
water  falling  from  a  metallic  roof,  or  from  a  shingle  or  slate 
roof,  after  it  has  been  thoroughly  washed,  may  be  used  under 
precautions:  1st,  that  it  is  not  near  the  seashore;  impurity, 
sea  salt,  tested  by  silver  nitrate;  2d,  that  it  has  no  organic 
matter  in  it,  this  impurity  interferes  by  keeping  some  salts 
in  solution  which  should  precipitate,  and  otherwise  tested  by 
adding  a  few  drops  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  to  the  water  in  a 
medium-sized  test  tube,  then  add  a  solution  of  permanganate 
of  potassium,  and  gradually  heating  to  150°  F.,  if  this  dis- 
colors the  permanganate  then  it  contains  organic  matter ; 
3d,  to  the  water  in  another  test  tube,  add  a  drop  or  two 
of  hydrosulphide  of  ammonium — it  should  remain  a  clear 
straw  tint.  Any  other  appearance  indicates  some  metallic 
salt.  Distilled  water  is  the  best;  steam  from  an  engine  may 
contain  grease  or  oil.  Rain  water,  as  above  tested,  is  next  to 
distilled  water. 

ALCOHOL. — The  usual  alcohol  of  the  drug  store  is  85  per 
cent.,  and  is  used  in  chemical  work  both  for  burning  and 
for  assays.  Absolute  alcohol  is  generally  considered  free 
from  water,  but  this  is  seldom  quite  true,  and  it  is  seldom 


THE    REAGENTS.  29 

used.  Methylic  alcohol  is  cheaper,  and  answers  well  for  burn- 
ing and  blowpipe  purposes. 

HYDROGEN,  H,  atomic  weight  1.  It  may  be  prepared 
for  common  use  by  using  granulated  zinc  and  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid.  Add  about  one  part  acid  to  five  or  six  parts 
water,  and  pouring  slowly  upon  the  zinc  in  a  bottle  which 
will  bear  a  little  heat,  as  the  acid  gives  off  heat  when  the 
water  is  added  to  it.  Zinc  may  be  granulated  by  melting  it 
in  a  Hessian  crucible  and  pouring  it  from  a  little  height  into 
a  bucket  of  cold  water.  .  Hydrogen  is  sometimes  used  in 
reducing  finely  powdered  iron  ore  to  iron.  In  such  a  case 
it  should  be  dry,  and  to  obtain  it  thus  it  is  passed  through  a 
glass  tube  filled  with  chloride  of  calcium.  If  needed  very 
pure,  the  zinc  must  be  pure.  By  passing  it  through  a  solu- 
tion of  caustic  potash  it  may  be  rendered  purer,  and  Mallet 
recommends  additionally  the  passage  through  a  solution  of 
bichloride  of  mercury. 

If  a  small  quantity  is  needed  absolutely  pure,  it  may  be 
collected  over  sodium,  or  by  the  galvanic  decomposition  of 
water  between  platinum  electrodes  as  in  the  usual  way  by 
using  a  battery. 

CHLORINE,  Cl,  35.5.  By  subtracting  H  from  hydrochloric 
acid  we  have  the  chlorine.  This  is  best  done  by  treating  a 
mixture  of  peroxide  of  manganese  with  hydrochloric  acid  in  a 
flask.  As  the  chlorine  is  exceedingly  disagreeable  and  injur- 
ious to  breathe,  the  acid  should  be  poured  into  the  flask 
through  a  safety-tube  bent  in  the  form  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  1. 
The  manganese  and  acid  are  put  into  A,  the  latter  being 
poured  into  E ;  there  will  always  be  some  acid  at  B  prevent- 
ing any  chlorine  from  escaping.  The  chlorine  passes  over 
to  C,  and  if  the  water  in  the  bottle  C  is  cold  it  will  absorb 


30  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

rapidly,  but  if  driven  over  from  A  too  fast,  it  will  escape 
from  D.  When  saturated  pour  it  into  a  glass-stoppered  bot- 
tle, put  it  in  a  cool  place  out  of  light,  and  generally  upside 
down,  since  in  that  position  the  gas  is  less  likely  to  escape. 
The  covering  of  bottles  is  always  most  efficient  if  we  use 
thick  pasteboard  cylinders  of  just  sufficient  height  and  diam- 
eter to  slip  over  the  bottle  easily,  for  if  a  closet  is  used  the 
evaporations  from  various  solutions,  saturations,  and  reagents 
in  some  degree  combine  or  deposit,  and  may  create  an  un- 

FIG.  1. 


pleasant  odor  and  injure  reagents,  and,  moreover,  every  ex- 
posure to  light  in  order  to  use  one  reagent  affects  all  the  rest 
within  the  closet,  and  it  is  no  more  trouble  to  remove  the 
cover  than  to  open  the  closet,  and  very  few  reagents  need  be 
kept  in  the  dark.  Black  bottles  are  inconvenient,  as  we  can- 
not tell  the  condition  of  the  reagent. 

Chlorine  may  sometimes  be  used  simply  as  a  gas.  Toward 
the  close  of  the  operation  it  will  be  well  to  heat  the  flask 
gently  by  the  spirit-lamp,  placing  the  latter  under  the  flask 
and  drawing  it  away  soon  to  prevent  too  sudden  heat,  then 
replacing  again ;  or,  better  yet,  place  a  close  wire  netting  on 
the  stand  (14  to  15,  or  more  wires  to  the  inch),  and  set  the 


THE    REAGENTS.  31 

flask  upon  that  before  applying  the  lamp.  It  would  be  well 
to  join  the  tubes  at  F  by  a  piece  of  rubber  tube ;  sheet  rub- 
ber is  a  poor  thing  to  keep  in  the  laboratory,  unless  kept  in 
a  tin  tube,  as  it  soon  becomes  weak,  but  when  new  it  may  be 
of  service.  Tie  (with  a  soft  cotton  thread)  your  connections 
by  rubber  tube  or  rubber  sheet. 

BROMINE  AND  IODINE,  Br,  80  and  I,  127  (126.8). 

Both  of  these  are  used  as  deoxygenating  reagents.  As 
sold  by  good  druggists  and  chemists,  they  are  generally  pure 
enough.  Br  must  be  kept  very  closely  in  well  stoppered  bot- 
tles. It  is  used  in  three  forms :  (1)  as  free  bromine ;  (2)  as 
a  bromine  water  which  holds,  at  ordinary  temperature,  about 
three  per  cent,  of  Br ;  (3)  as  solution  in  hydrochloric  acid 
which  dissolves  about  twelve  per  cent. 

Sulphides  (as  iron  pyrites),  even  in  crystals,  are  readily 
decomposed  by  Br.  Sulphur  is  more  readily  oxidized  by  Br 
than  by  nitric  acid ;  and  precipitated  sulphides  are  thus 
easily  broken  up,  and  brought  to  a  state  fit  for  weighing, 
without  the  necessity  of  burning  the  filter  in  order  to  get  the 
weight  of  particles  often  so  entangled  in  the  filter  that  burn- 
ing becomes  necessary,  as  we  shall  see  in  some,  processes  here- 
after described.  The  presence  of  ammoniacal  salts  (with 
which  Br  liberates  nitrogen)  hinders  the  formation  of  per- 
oxides in  acid  solutions  of  cobalt,  nickel,  and  manganese, 
but  does  not  interfere  with  that  in  the  like  solutions  of  iron, 
tin,  and  mercury  (Mallet  and  Fresenius).  It  is  superior,  in 
some  respects,  to  chlorine  water  as  an  oxidant.  Mallet  finds 
that  Br  and  iodine  together  act  more  energetically  in  break- 
ing up  cast-iron,  for  liberation  of  its  carbon,  than  either 
alone ;  and  Br,  through  which  chlorine  has  been  passed,  acts 
more  rapidly  than  that  element  alone. 


32  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Br  is  bought  in  liquid  form,  and  of  very  dark  brown,  and 
iodine  in  tabular  flakes,  somewhat  crystalline.  The  fumes 
of  Br  should  be  avoided,  although  very  slight  inhalations  of 
either  I  or  Br  are  not  necessarily  injurious.  Stains  upon  the 
hands  disappear  after  a  while. 

Bromine  may  be  prepared  by  mixing  the  crystals  of  bro- 
mide of  potassium  with  peroxide  of  manganese,  and  diluted 
sulphuric  acid,  three-quarters  water,  the  former  two  in  about 
equal  parts,  and  adding  the  dilute  acid  so  as  to  cover  the 
mass  in  the  retort,  fastening  in  tightly,  by  clay  luting,  a  glass 
tube  which  is  wrapped  and  kept  wet  with  very  cold  water, 
better  with  ice,  and  thus  the  vapors  condense  into  bromine 
liquid  in  an  ice-cold  receiver.  Very  gentle  heat  may  be 
applied  if  the  Br  is  slow  in  passing. 

OXYGEN,  0,  16.  Oxygen  is  obtained  by  various  processes, 
but  the  neatest  is  by  heating  chlorate  of  potassium  with  iron 
carbonate — the  cheap  so-called  drop  carbonate  of  iron  is 
quite  good  enough.  Usually,  peroxide  of  manganese,  the 
"  black  oxide,"  is  recommended,  which  is  good,  but  much 
more  uncleanly  and  harder  to  wash  out  in  cleaning  the 
report.  With  the  carbonate  of  iron  the  escape  of  gas  may 
be  regulated,  or  even  entirely  arrested,  by  withdrawing  the 
lamp,  and  the  remaining  chlorate  be  used  again.  The  per- 
oxide of  manganese  and  the  iron  carbonate  are  not  decom- 
posed, but  simply,  by  their  presence,  they  facilitate  the 
decomposition  of  the  chlorate.  If  the  oxygen  is  to  be  ex- 
tremely pure,  chlorine  traces  must  be  eliminated  after  man- 
ganese peroxide  is  used,  or  carbonic  anhydride  (C02)  after 
the  carbonate  of  iron,  but  it  is  rarely  that  .the  oxygen  is  not 
sufficiently  pure  with  either.  The  little  sparkling  which 
sometimes  occurs  in  the  retort,  due  to  some  small  organic 


THE    REAGENTS.  33 

matter,  is  of  no  injurious  consequence  in  any  way  unless 
very  dirty  material  is  used  in  the  peroxide. 

IRON,  Fe,  56.  This  is  sometimes  used  for  standardizing 
for  volumetric  analyses.  The  purest  iron  is  generally  ob- 
tained in  piano  wire.  It  is  said  to  contain  only  four  one- 
thousandths  of  impurity,  and  is  consequently  fflfo  pure  iron. 
But  this  is  not  always  so,  and  the  wire  must,  for  volumetric 
analysis,  be  analyzed,  and  the  amount  of  pure  iron  deter- 
mined, and  allowance  made  for  it.  After  a  wire  has  been 
analyzed  in  part,  the  remaining  part  may  be  considered  to  be 
the  same  in  purity  as  the  section  analyzed.  It  may  then  be 
kept  in  short  pieces  in  a  bottle  free  from  dust  and  rust,  being 
marked  as  to  fineness. 

ZINC,  Zn,  65.  This  is  used  in  various  operations,  besides 
simply  for  hydrogen.  In  volumetric  analysis  we  require  that 
it  should  be  pure,  and  it  can  be  distilled  into  water  from  an 
iron  crucible  with  iron  cover  and  tube  fitted.  It  can  be  had 
from  the  chemical-ware  stores  in  thin  plates  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  thick,  nearly,  if  not  quite,  chemically  pure. 

TIN,  Sn,  118.  This  is  used  by  some  in  thin  slips  for  deter- 
mination of  phosphorus  and  for  the  preparation  of  chloride  of 
tin.  The  grain  tin  of  commerce  may  be  employed. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  HC1,  36.5.  Pure  acid  is  colorless. 
Color  indicates  free  chlorine,  or  ferric  chloride,  and  the  test  is, 
that  it  turns  blue  immediately  on  the  addition  of  a  little 
paste  of  starch  and  iodide  of  potassium.  Test  it  for  the  pres- 
ence of  sulphuric  acid  by  diluting  it  twice  or  thrice  its  vol- 
ume with  water,  and  adding  three  or  four  drops  of  chloride  of 
barium  ;  a  cloudy  appearance  indicates  its  presence.  But  the 
ordinary  shop  hydrochloric  acid  is  also  used,  especially  in 
making  chlorine  and  for  other  purposes,  and  when  the  only 
3 


34  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

impurity  present  is  chlorine,  it  is  good  for  gold  solution  and 
for  the  precipitation  of  silver.  The  presence  of  iron  may  be 
proved  by  the  precipitation  of  the  peroxide  of  iron  when  am- 
monia is  added  to  a  diluted  small  amount  of  the  acid  ;  the 
ammonia  must  be  added  until  it  can  plainly  be  smelled;  let  it 
stand,  and  if  no  brown  precipitate  occurs  after  gentle  heat 
and  rest,  iron  is  either  entirely  absent  or  extremely  small  in 
amount. 

NITRIC  ACID,  HN03,  63.  This  is  employed  in  two  condi- 
tions, concentrated  nitric  acid,  usually  colored,  and  ordinary 
nitric  acid,  which  is  less  concentrated,  and,  when  pure,  color- 
less. It  ought  not  to  show  presence  of  sulphuric  acid  (the 
test  is  the  same  as  in  hydrochloric  acid),  and  it  also  should 
have  no  free  chlorine ;  it  may  be  tested  by  nitrate  of  silver,  a 
drop  of  which  will  cause  a  white  cloudy  precipitate  of  chlor- 
ide of  silver,  dense  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  chlorine 
present. 

AQUA  REGIA. — This  is  the  name  given  to  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  one  volume  of  the  former  to 
three  or  four  of  the  latter.  It  is  better  to  make  this  when 
you  use  it  for  dissolving  gold. 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  H2S04,  98.  When  pure  it  is  colorless. 
The  presence  of  any  organic  matter,  a  piece  of  cork,  straw, 
etc.,  for  instance,  will  darken  the  whole.  Hence,  no  corks 
should  be  used.  It  has  little  effect  upon  beeswax  stoppers, 
but  glass  stoppers  are  to  be  preferred.  A  current  of  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid  (sulphuretted  hydrogen)  should  produce  no 
precipitate  in  the  pure  dilute  acid.  When  diluted  with  twice 
or  thrice  its  volume  of  water,  it  should  not  decolor  a  drop  of  a 
solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium  let  fall  into  it,  either 
immediately,  due  to  the  presence  of  S02,  or  after  long  contact 


THE    REAGENTS.  35 

with  a  slip  of  pure  zinc,  due  to  the  presence  of  nitric  acid. 
Arsenic,  if  present,  is  indicated  in  its  precipitation  by  sul- 
phide of  barium,  which  brings  down  the  arsenic,  and  any  ex- 
cess of  sulphide  is  converted  into  insoluble  sulphate,  and  this 
latter  method  may  be  used  for  purifying  H2S04  from  this 
element  (Dupasquier). 

HYDROSULPHURIC  ACID  GAS,  or  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or 
dihydric  sulphide,  H2S,  34.  This  is  formed  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid,  or  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  on  sulphide  of 
iron.  Hydrochloric  acid  is  preferable,  since  sulphuric  acid 
crystallizes  with  the  iron  too  easily.  The  apparatus  (Fig.  1) 
shown  in  the  section  upon  chlorine  may  be  used.  Into  the 
flask  put  some  small  pieces  of  sulphide  of  iron  and  pour  upon 
them  diluted  H2S04  or  HC1 ;  convey  the  gas  into  some  water 
(a  wash-bottle)  to  collect  any  impurities  which  may  come 
over,  and  by  means  of  another  tube  bent  down,  it  may  be 
conveyed  into  an  assay  solution  when  we  wish  it  to  be  satu- 
rated. For  this  purpose  we  may  cheaply  buy  the  sulphide 
of  iron,  or  by  heating  a  bar  of  iron  white  hot  in  a  black- 
smith's fire  and  pressing  it  against  a  roll  of  brimstone,  the 
iron  combines  and  drops  off  as  sulphide  and  may  be  caught 
in  water.  Or  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  iron  filings  with 
two  parts  of  flowers  of  sulphur  projected  into  a  Hessian  cru- 
cible heated  red  hot,  covered  until  well  melted,  and  then  the 
contents  poured  out  upon  an  iron  plate,  or  a  stone  surface, 
will  supply  all  the  sulphide  needed.  After  using  the  appa- 
ratus, wash  all  out,  and  the  remains  of  sulphide  of  iron  may 
be  kept  in  the  flask  for  the  next  time.  As  there  is  no  need 
to  heat  the  bottle,  any  glass  bottle,  with  a  wide  mouth  for 
fitting  in  the  cork  and  tubes,  may  be  used,  and  kept  for  that 
purpose  only,  thus  releasing  the  flask  for  more  important 
service. 


36  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ACETIC  ACID,  C2H402,  60.  The  usual  acetic  acid  of  com- 
merce, containing  about  thirty  per  cent,  of  normal  acid,  is 
generally  used.  It  is  pure  enough  when  it  leaves  no  resi- 
duum upon  evaporation  from  a  platinum  slip. 

OXALIC  ACID,  C2H204  +  2  H20,  126.  This  acid  is  used  to 
standardize  solutions  of  permanganate  of  potassium.  It  is 
pure  when  no  residuum  is  left  upon  a  strip  of  platinum  foil. 
But  if  not  pure,  it  must  be  re-crystallized  by  nearly  dissolv- 
ing a  mass  of  crystals  in  hot  water  in  a  porcelain  basin,  and 
when  no  more  crystals  will  dissolve  pouring  all  the  solution 
upon  a  filter  paper  and  filter  into  another  basin  and  set  by, 
in  a  warm  place,  to  crystallize.  The  mother  liquor  is  poured 
off  from  the  crystals  and  returned  to  the  former  mass,  and 
the  crystals  drained  and  laid  on  filter  paper  to  dry,  and  then 
bottled  in  a  wide-mouth  bottle  for  use.  Test  some  of  it  upon 
a  clean  piece  of  platinum  foil.  More  crystals  can  be  formed 
from  the  remaining  solution  until  the  mother  liquor  becomes 
of  little  quantity,  and  then  it  is  generally  seen  to  be  impure, 
and  should  be  thrown  away.  By  use  of  this  salt  and  car- 
bonate of  ammonium,  and  by  crystallization,  the  assayer 
may  make  chemically  pure  oxalate  of  ammonium,  as  a  re- 
agent, for  separating  lime  in  his  assays. 

SUCCINIC  ACID,  C4H604,  118.  This  acid  is  preserved  in 
colorless  crystals,  and  is  used  in  making  the  reagent  suc- 
cinate  of  ammonium.  It  should  not  leave  any  residuum 
upon  platinum  foil. 

TARTARIC  ACID,  C4H606,  150.  A  solution  of  this  acid  in 
water  is  apt  to  mould,  but  it  is  said  that  if  a  small  lump  of 
camphor  (gum)  is  dropped  into  the  bottle  it  will  remain 
without  mould.  Mallet  says  that  if  the  solution  is  made 
with  boiling  pure  water,  and  the  solution  decanted,  without 
filtering,  into  the  bottle,  it  will  keep  a  long  time. 


THE    REAGENTS.  37 

SULPHUROUS  ACID  OR  ANHYDRIDE,  SO2,  64.  This  is  pre- 
pared by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  metallic  copper. 
The  apparatus  is  the  same  as  for  chlorine  (see  Chlorine,  Fig. 
1),  except  that  a  strong  heat  is  applied  under  the  flask  or 
retort.  Pour  into  the  flask,  or  retort,  four  parts  sulphuric 
acid  to  one  of  copper  strips,  or  wire,  and  apply  heat — better 
with  a  wire  gauze  or  netting  under  the  flask — heat  gradually 
at  first  and  cautiously  to  prevent  bubbling  over.  Pass  the 
gas  into  the  assay  solution  intended  to  be  saturated,  or,  if 
intended  for  keeping  in  solution,  pass  it  into  stoppered  bottles 
with  cold  distilled  water,  cork  up  tightly  and  remove  to  a 
cool  dark  place. 

CARBONIC  DIOXIDE,  or  carbonic  acid  gas,  C02,  44.  This  is 
easily  made  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  upon  pieces 
of  marble ;  the  acid  seizes  upon  the  lime  of  the  lime  car- 
bonate and  the  C02  is  set  free,  thus  CaC03  +  2HC1  =  CaCl2 
+  H20  +  C02. 

MOLYBDIC  ACID,  Mo03,  144.  This  is  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  molybdate  of  ammonium.  As  sold,  it  is  sufficiently 
pure. 

POTASSA,  KHO,  56.  Pure  caustic  potassa  is  sold  in  sticks. 
There  is  a  caustic  potassa  which  cannot  be  used  because  of 
its  impurities  ;  it  is  called  a  lime  potassa.  The  so-called  pure 
stick  potassa  frequently  contains  some  silica  and  perhaps  a 
little  lime  and  iron,  from  which  it  should  be  free.  It  is  best 
to  test  it  and  determine  from  a  known  weight  just  the  per 
cent,  of  these  impurities  it  possesses,  and  then  in  assaying  to 
allow  for  the  amount  found.  It  should  be  kept  from  the 
air,  or  it  will  absorb  both  moisture  and  C02.  It  may  be 
tested  as  follows :  a  watery  solution  of  KHO  neutralized  by 
hydrochloric  acid  should  not  be  affected  by  hydrosulphide  of 


38  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ammonium,  nor  a  precipitate  be  formed  by  oxalate  of  am- 
monium. 

SODA,  NaHO,  40.  What  has  been  said  of  potassa  equally 
applies  in  this  case. 

AMMONIA,  NH3,  17.  Used  as  ammonia  water,  which  is  a 
solution  of  the  gas,  should  be  colorless,  and  should  evaporate 
from  the  platinum  foil  without  leaving  a  stain.  It  may  be 
prepared  by  passing  the  gas  over  into  a  receiver,  the  latter 
in  a  freezing  mixture.  The  gas  is  obtained  from  sal  am- 
moniac, crude  muriate  of  ammonium  of  commerce,  when 
heated  in  company  with  lime  powder,  and  it  may  be  made  of 
very  great  strength  if  the  solution  of  the  water  be  very  cold 
and  the  gas  be  passed  over  for  a  long  time.  It  should  be 
free  from  C02 ;  the  test  is  lime  water ;  this  should  present  no 
cloudiness.  But  it  should  be  kept  in  small  bottles,  as  it  ab- 
sorbs C02  from  the  atmosphere. 

LIME-WATER,  solution  of  calcium  hydrate,  CaO  +  H20,  is 
obtained  by  digesting  slacked  lime  with  cold  water  in  excess, 
and  decanting  the  clear  water  from  over  the  lime.  It  must 
be  kept  from  the  air,  or  a  pellicle  of  lime  carbonate  will  form 
on  the  surface  and  become  troublesome. 

ALUMINA,  A1203,  105.  This  is  employed  in  fluxes  for  the 
dry  method.  Good  common  clay  is  used  as  sufficiently  pure. 

LITHARGE,  PbO,  223.  Pure  litharge  may  be  known  by 
its  freedom  from  reddish  spots  of  red  lead  (Pb304),  and  also 
from  any  particle  of  lead.  Passing  it  through  a  sieve  will 
free  it  from  the  latter.  It  is  used  only  in  dry  assay. 

OXIDE  OF  COPPER,  CuO,  79.  The  black,  or  peroxide  of 
copper,  is  used  either  in  powder  or  finely  granular  state,  the 
latter  when  used  for  making  oxygen  from  chlorate  of  potas- 
sium in  place  of  black  oxide  of  manganese,  or  iron  carbonate 


THE    REAGENTS.  39 

(see  Oxygen).  It  is  also  used  in  the  quantitative  analysis  of 
iron  to  determine  the  carbon  by  its  combustion  into  C02. 

NITRATE  OF  POTASSIUM,  KN03,  101.  The  nitre  of  com- 
merce, by  one  or  two  crystallizations,  becomes  pure  enough 
for  ordinary  purposes. 

SULPHATE  OF  POTASSIUM,  KHS04,  136.  If  pure,  hydro- 
sulphide  of  ammonium  should  occasion  no  precipitate  which 
would  indicate  the  presence  of  alumina,  or  some  metallic 
salts. 

CARBONATE  OF  POTASSIUM,  K2C03  +  2H20,  174.  The 
solution  of  this  salt  in  pure  water  should  be  perfectly  clear, 
and,  when  neutralized  by  hydrochloric  acid,  should  give  no 
precipitate  and  none  with  chloride  of  barium,  showing 
absence  of  sulphates,  and  also  none  with  hydrosulphide  of 
ammonium,  showing  absence  of  metallic  salts  and  of  alumina. 
The  solution  evaporated  to  dryness  in  a  capsule  should  leave 
nothing  insoluble,  showing  absence  of  silica  and  other  ele- 
ments. But  for  some  assays  (dry)  potassium  carbonate  need 
not  be  required  of  such  purity,  as  in  the  making  of  black  flux. 

BLACK  FLUX. — This  is  a  mixture  of  the  last-mentioned 
salt  and  finely  divided  charcoal.  It  is  made  by  mixing  one 
part  of  saltpetre  and  two  parts  of  crude  tartar  (acid  tartrate 
of  potassium)  or  argol,  which,  when  purified,  is  so-called 
cream  of  tartar.  This  mixture  is  put  into  an  iron  vessel  or 
pot,  and  set  fire  to  by  a  piece  of  lighted  charcoal,  and  when 
burned  out  is  broken  up  and  put  into  a  box  in  a  dry  place. 

CHLORATE  OF  POTASSIUM,  KC103,  122.5.  It  is  sufficiently 
pure  as  sold  in  the  drug  stores,  and  may  be  proved  as  the 
nitrate  is,  or,  if  not  pure,  recrystallized.  (See  under  Oxygen.) 

PERMANGANATE  OF  POTASSIUM,  K2Mn208,  316.  Furnished 
sufficiently  pure  in  the  crystals  to  be  had  at  the  chemical 


40  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

shops.  Generally  the  larger  crystals  are  the  purest.  It  may 
very  easily  be  formed  by  the  following  process:  Take  4  parts 
finely  powdered  black  oxide  of  manganese  (or  a  purer  form  of 
peroxide,  which  is  also  the  binoxide),  intimately  mix  it  with 
4J  parts  of  chlorate  of  potassium  and  5  parts  of  hydrate  of 
potassa  dissolved  in  a  very  little  water.  The  pasty  mass  is 
dried,  and  heated  to  dull  redness  for  some  time  (half  hour)  in 
an  iron  pot  or  clay  crucible.  The  oxygen  derived  from  the 
chlorate  of  potassium  converts  the  binoxide  of  manganese  into 
manganic  acid,  which  combines  with  the  potash  of  the  hy- 
drate. On  treating  the  whole  mass  with  water,  the  manga- 
nate  of  potash  is  dissolved,  forming  a  dark  green  solution. 
This  is  diluted  with  water,  and  a  stream  of  carbonic  dioxide 
(C02)  passed  through  it  as  long  as  any  change  of  color  is 
observed;  the  C02  combines  with  the  excess  of  potash,  the 
presence  of  which  conferred  stability  upon  the  manganate, 
which  is  then  decomposed  into  permanganate  of  potash  and 
binoxide  of  manganese.  The  latter  is  allowed  to  settle,  and 
the  clear  red  solution  poured  off  and  evaporated  to  a  small 
bulk.  On  cooling,  it  deposits  prismatic  crystals  of  the  per- 
manganate of  potash,  which  are  red  by  transmitted  light,  but 
reflect  a  dark  green  color.  Draw  out  the  crystals  and  dry 
,  upon  a  porous  tile. 

Permanganate  of  potassium  has  great  coloring  power,  and 
the  readiness  with  which  it  loses  this  color  in  the  presence 
of  organic  matter  gives  it  great  importance.  Sulphurous 
acid,  or  a  ferrous  salt,  deprives  it  of  its  color,  and  hence  this 
property  is  utilized  in  the  volumetric  analysis  of  iron. 

SULPHOCYANIDE  OF  POTASSIUM,  KCNS,  97.  Is  only  made 
use  of  in  the  quantitative  determination  of  the  persalt  of  iron. 
One  part  of  the  salt  to  10  or  15  of  water  is  the  proper 
strength  of  solution.  (See  Volumetric  Analysis.) 


THE    REAGENTS.  41 

POTASSIUM  CYANIDE,  CNK  or  KCy.  Used  in  the  furnace 
assay  of  tin.  It  may  also  be  used  advantageously  in  all  ex- 
periments of  reduction,  since  it  exercises  even  a  more  powerful 
reducing  action  than  soda.  It  is  for  this  reason  frequently 
employed  when  the  presence  of  such  metallic  oxides  is 
suspected,  whose  conversion  into  metals  requires  a  high  tem- 
perature, and  the  aid  of  a  very  efficient  deoxidizing  agent. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  caution  the  operator  against  its 
poisonous  qualities. 

CHLORIDE  OF  SODIUM,  NaCl,  58.5.  It  should  be  free  from 
sulphates ;  the  test  is  barium  chloride.  Pure  table  salt,  dry, 
is  sufficiently  pure  for  most  experiments.  It  is  used  in  the 
quantitative  determination  of  sulphur  in  the  dry  way,  in 
order  to  reduce  the  intensity  of  the  action  of  the  saltpetre 
with  which  it  is  used. 

SULPHURET  OF  SODIUM,  or  sodium  sulphide.  Na2S  + 
9H20,  240.  The  usual  crystal  in  which  it  may  be  found  in 
the  shops  is  pure  enough.  It  is  used  in  the  volumetric 
determination  of  zinc.  It  should  be  kept  in  well-stoppered 
bottles,  as  it  deliquesces.  A  solution  is  made  thus :  Make  a 
lixivium  of  pure  caustic  soda,  divide  it  into  two  equal  parts, 
through  one  of  which  pass  hydrosulphuric  acid  gas  to  satu- 
ration, then  reunite  both  parts,  adding,  if  necessary,  a  little 
solution  of  caustic  soda,  to  remove  completely  the  odor  of 
the  hydrosulphuric  acid,  and  then  filter  to  obtain  a  clear 
liquid. 

SULPHITE  OF  SODIUM,  Na^SOg  +  10H30,  306.  The  solu- 
tion should  be  clear,  and  after  heating  with  sulphuric  acid 
to  expel  the  sulphurous  anhydride  it  should  not  be  affected 
by  hydrosulphide  of  ammonium. 

CARBONATE  OF  SODIUM,  N^COs  +  10H20,  286.     It  is  to 


42  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

be  tested  as  in  the  case  of  carbonate  of  potassium,  with  which 
it  is  used  to  break  up  those  bodies  which  are  insoluble  in 
acids,  and  thereby  render  them  soluble.  The  two  mixed 
in  the  proportions  of  13  parts  carbonate  of  potassium  and  10 
parts  carbonate  of  sodium  are  found  more  efficient  than  either 
separately,  and  thus  it  is  called  "sodic  carbonate  of  potas- 
sium." 

BORAX,  ordinary  borax,  unheated,  is  a  biborate  of  sodium 
with  10  parts  of  water  of  crystallization.  This  water  may 
be  driven  out  with  advantage  to  the  operator  with  the  blow- 
pipe, and  then  it  is  called  the  "glass  of  borax."  It  is  used 
as  a  flux  in  dry  assays.  The  commercial  article  is  frequently 
of  sufficient  purity  for  use,  but  it  may  contain  slight  amounts 
of  iron  as  an  impurity,  which  would  interfere  with  properly 
judging  what  colors  are  produced  in  the  borax  bead  by  the 
substance  dissolved  in  it.  Test  the  borax  for  iron  colors  by 
making  a  bead  and  examining  it  carefully. 

PHOSPHATE  or  SODIUM,  Na2HP04  +  12H20,  358.  One 
part  of  sodium  phosphate  in  ten  of  water  is  the  proper  solu- 
tion. No  residue  should  be  left  in  the  solution,  if  the  salt  is 
pure,  and  no  effect  should  be  produced  by  ammonia  even 
when  the  solution  is  warm. 

ACETATE  OF  SODIUM,  C2NaH302,  136.  The  solution  should 
be  clear,  and  no  effect  should  follow  the  addition  of  oxalate, 
or  hydrosulphide  of  ammonium. 

SUCCINATE  OF  SODIUM,  C4H4Na202  4-  6H20,  270.  This  is 
preferred  to  succinate  of  ammonium  only  because  it  is  easily 
had  in  commerce ;  but  the  latter  leaves  no  insoluble  residue. 
Tests  are  the  same  as  for  the  acetate. 

NITRO-PRUSSIDE  OF  SODIUM,  FeNa2(CN)5NO  +  2H20.  This 
is  only  used  in  qualitative  analysis.  It  may  readily  be  had 


THE    REAGENTS.  43 

at  the  chemical  stores.  It  is  valuable  with  the  blowpipe  for 
some  assays  of  sulphur  to  be  hereafter  mentioned. 

CHLORIDE  OF  AMMONIUM,  NH4C1,  53.5.  It  should  leave 
no  residuum  on  platinum  foil.  It  should  be  colorless,  and 
give  no  precipitate  with  hydrosulphide  of  ammonium.  Em- 
ploy five  parts  of  water  to  one  of  the  salt.  Sal  ammoniac  of 
commerce  (ammonium  muriate)  is  tolerably  pure,  excepting  a 
little  iron  on  outside  pieces. 

HYDROSULPHIDE  OF  AMMONIUM,  (NH4)HS,  51.  This  is  ob- 
tained by  supersaturating  aqua  ammonia  with  hydrosul- 
phuric  acid  gas.  It  is  also  best  to  have  a  solution  not  quite 
supersaturated,  and  both  should  be  kept  in  well-stoppered 
bottles  away  from  both  heat  and  light.  Though  this  may  be 
had  in  the  stores,  it  is  better  to  make  it  in  the  laboratory,  for 
it  is  easily  made  of  the  strength  desired,  either  as  colorless  or 
yellow,  as  they  act  differently  according  to  amount  of  sulphur. 
(See  under  Zinc,  in  a  different  part.) 

MOLYBDATE  OF  AMMONIUM,  (NH4)2Mo04,  196.  This  re- 
agent is  employed  usually  in  solution  in  nitric  acid ;  one  part 
of  molybdic  acid  is  dissolved  in  eight  parts  of  aqua  ammonia 
and  twenty  parts  of  nitric  acid.  It  is  filtered.  It  is  used 
both  in  qualitative  and  quantitative  analyses. 

ACETATE  OF  AMMONIUM,  C2H3(NH4)02,  77  (tested  as  in  the 
case  of  the  carbonate),  is  used  as  we  have  said  (acetate  of 
sodium)  in  the  place  of  the  sodium  acetate,  as  it  does  not  con- 
tain fixed  matters,  but  it  is  a  little  more  expensive  for  indus- 
trial purposes. 

OXALATE  OF  AMMONIUM,  C2(NH4)204  +  H20,  142.  One 
part  to  twenty-four  of  water.  May  be  tested  as  in  the  pre- 
vious ammonium  salts.  It  is  valuable  as  a  reagent  for  lime. 

NEUTRAL   SUCCINATE  OF  AMMONIUM,   C4H4(NH4)204,   152. 


44  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  commercial  crystallized  succinate  of  ammonium  is  the 
acid  succinate  C4H5(NH4)04,  135,  but  the  neutral  is  prepared 
directly  from  the  succinic  acid  and  ammonia,  till  the  solution 
is  neutral,  as  tested  by  litmus  paper.  Or  it  may  be  prepared 
from  the  acid  succinate  above  mentioned  by  saturating  with 
ammonia  till  neutral. 

CHLORIDE  OF  BARIUM,  BaCl2  +  2H20,  244.  Used  in  solu- 
tion with  ten  times  its  weight  of  water,  should  be  completely 
soluble  and  show  no  precipitate  with  hydrosulphide  of  am- 
monium. 

NITRATE  OF  BARIUM,  BaN206,  261.  Make  the  solution  or 
fifteen  parts  water  to  one  of  the  salt.  Its  test  for  purity  is  the 
same  as  in  the  chloride. 

CARBONATE  OF  BARIUM,  BaC03,  197.  This  is  made  in  the 
following  way :  Dissolve  chloride  of  barium  in  a  large  quan- 
tity of  warm  water,  heat  the  solution,  and  as  soon  as  it  begins 
to  boil,  pour  in  gradually  a  solution  of  carbonate  of  ammon- 
ium or  of  sodium,  until  precipitation  takes  place,  then  let  the 
fluid  settle,  protected  from  dust ;  decant  the  clear  fluid  and 
repeat  the  washing  by  decantation  with  warm  water  till  the 
supernatant  fluid  gives  no  precipitation  with  nitrate  of  silver. 
The  carbonate  of  barium  should  remain  suspended  in  as 
much  water  as  will  form  a  cream,  and  be  preserved  in  that 
state  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 

CHLORIDE  OF  CALCIUM,  CaCl2,  111.  As  this  salt  is  used 
only  to  absorb  moisture  and  because  of  its  ready  deliques- 
cence, it  need  not  be  pure.  It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of 
hydrochloric  acid  upon  fragments  of  white  marble  until  the 
acid  is  saturated  with  the  marble,  and  then  the  solution 
evaporated  in  a  porcelain  dish  till  it  becomes  pasty,  porous, 
and  perfectly  dry.  In  the  latter  condition  it  is  better  than 


THE    REAGENTS.  45 

when  fused.  Break  it  up  into  fragments  and  preserve  it  in 
a  well-stoppered  bottle,  remembering  that  it  absorbs  moisture 
rapidly  from  the  air. 

SULPHATE  OF  MAGNESIUM,  MgS04  +  7H2O,  246.  This 
salt  is  used  to  precipitate  phosphoric  acid,  and  it  must,  when 
mixed  with  chloride  of  ammonium,  be  not  affected  either  by 
ammonia,  or  by  its  oxalate,  nor  by  hydrosulphide  of  ammo- 
nium, even  after  an  hour's  repose.  It  may  be  prepared  for 
use  thus :  Prepare  a  solution  of  one  part  of  crystallized  sul- 
phate of  magnesium  and  one  part  of  chloride  of  ammonium 
in  eight  parts  of  water ;  add  four  parts  of  ammonia,  let  it 
rest  for  some  days,  and  then  filter.  The  common  name  for 
sulphate  of  magnesium  is  Epsom  salt. 

NITRATE  OF  SILVER,  AgN03,  170.  The  ordinary  commer- 
cial salt  in  clear  crystals  is  usually  pure  enough.  One  part 
to  twenty  parts  of  pure  water  is  the  proper  dilution.  If  no 
organic 'particles  exist  in  the  solution,  it  may  be  kept  in  the 
light  without  any  loss  of  clearness.  Dust  settling  around  the 
stopper  may  cause  some  degree  of  blackening,  but  it  is  gener- 
ally a  matter  of  little  consequence,  and  occasional  care  in 
dropping  will  prevent  any  important  results  from  exposure  to 
light.  (See  further  reference  to  this  salt  at  the  close  of  these 
remarks  on  Reagents.) 

A  very  convenient  method  of  making  pure  nitrate  of  silver 
in  crystals  may  be  adopted  as  follows :  Take  a  silver  coin 
(25  cts.)  and  dissolve  completely  in  common  nitric  acid  (free 
from  chlorine) ;  a  little  dark  powder  may  remain,  this  is 
gold ;  filter  and  the  gold  powder  may  be  reduced  under  blow- 
pipe, or  mashed  against  a  piece  of  steel  or  smooth  iron  surface 
with  another  hard  surface,  and  the  metallic  gold  color  will 
appear.  Into  the  clear  solution  pour  slightly  diluted  hydro- 


46  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

chloric  acid  or  sodium  chloride,  till  no  further  white  precipi- 
tate falls.  Drop  several  pieces  of  granulated  zinc  into  the 
vessel,  and,  if  acid  enough,  the  acid  will  immediately  act 
upon  the  zinc  and  hydrogen  will  be  set  free,  which,  uniting 
with  the  chlorine  of  the  silver  chloride,  will  soon  begin  to 
leave  the  silver  as  a  pure  metal,  changing  the  white  chloride 
into  a  dark  gray  mass  of  pure  silver  powder.  After  the  silver 
has  been  entirely  reduced  and  no  specks  of  white  chloride  re- 
main, the  zinc  may  be  removed,  if  not  already  dissolved,  and 
the  mass  of  spongy  silver  well  washed  by  decantation  from 
the  blue  copper  solution  of  the  coin  and  from  the  zinc  and 
chlorine  which  may  be  in  solution.  Pure  nitric  acid  may 
now  be  gently  poured  on  till  all  the  silver  is  dissolved.  It 
may  then  be  poured  into  an  evaporating  dish  and  gently 
heated  till  crystals  appear,  which  may  be  removed  and  dried 
after  cooling.  If  carefully  managed,  the  crystals  are  pure 
nitrate  of  silver  in  very  perfect  form. 

LITMUS  PAPER. — Digest  one  part  of  commercial  litmus  in 
six  parts  of  water,  filter  the  deep  blue  liquid  and  divide  it 
into  two  equal  parts ;  into  one  drop  carefully  some  very 
dilute  sulphuric  acid  until  the  blue  color  just  begins  to  show 
a  tinge  of  red ;  unite  the  two  parts  in  a  sufficiently  large 
dish  and  dip  in  some  sheets  of  unsized  paper ;  dry  the  sheets 
by  hanging  them  where  no  acid  vapors  can  reach  them ; 
when  dry  cut  them  into  strips  half  inch  wide  and  put  them 
into  a  wide-mouthed  bottle  closed  from  dust. 

RED  LITMUS  PAPER,  for  testing  alkaline  solutions,  may  be 
made  by  adding  some  drops  of  sulphuric  acid  to  the  blue 
solution  until  the  color  is  changed  to  pink,  then  dipping  the 
paper  into  this  reddened  solution  and  drying  and  cutting 
into  strips  as  in  the  former  case. 


CAUTIONS    AND    SUGGESTIONS.  47 

TURMERIC  PAPER. — Digest  and  heat  1  part  of  bruised 
turmeric  root  (or  turmeric  powder)  with  4  parts  of  alcohol 
and  2  of  water,  filter  the  tincture  obtained  and  steep  slips  or 
fine  paper  in  the  filtrate.  The  dried  slips  must  exhibit  a  fine 
yellow  tint.  Test  papers  must  be  kept  in  closed  boxes,  or  in 
black  bottles,  away  from  light  and  fumes. 

SALT  OF  LEAD  PAPER. — This  paper  is  used  only  in  the 
volumetric  analysis  of  zinc  by  sulphide  of  sodium.  Glazed 
paper,  or  note  paper  dipped  in  a  solution  of  acetate  of  lead 
and  dried,  will  detect  the  presence  of  sulphides  in  solution. 

MICROCOSMIC  SALT,  or  salt  of  phosphorus,  (HNaNH4)P04, 
if  in  crystals  +  8  H20.  Used  with  blowpipe.  Boil  6  parts 
of  sodium  phosphate  and  1  part  ammonium  chloride  in  2 
parts  water,  for  a  few  seconds,  then  cool  and  crystallize.  Re- 
crystallize  after  addition  of  some  aqua  ammonia. 

CAUTIONS  AND  SUGGESTIONS. 

In  selecting  a  room  for  a  laboratory,  especially  in  a  house 
used  for  other  purposes,  choose  an  upper  room  or  one  aside 
or  on  the  corner  of  the  house,  with  a  north  window.  Have 
the  light,  if  there  is  plenty  of  it,  on  only  one  side,  or  at  best 
have  no  cross  lights,  except  in  a  large  room  where  cross 
lights  do  not  interfere  with  ready  examination  of  assays. 
Place  the  assay  table  near  the  light.  It  is  important  to  use 
front  or  side  lights  in  determining  shades  of  color  and  pre- 
cipitations. North  windows  are  always  the  best  if  they  can 
be  had.  If  possible,  cut  off  one  small  room  for  the  assay 
balances  to  keep  them  from  dust  and  fumes  of  the  laboratory. 

For  a  private  laboratory  a  sand-bath  may  be  made  by 
filling  a  sheet-iron  pan  made  two  or  three  inches  deep,  with 
clean  sand.  The  sand  may  be  washed  by  being  shaken,  or 


48 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


stirred,  in  a  bucket  of  water  till  the  water  comes  off  clean, 
then  drained  and  placed  in  the  pan  to  dry.  This  made  firm 
upon  the  stove,  if  it  has  a  flat  top,  will  serve  all  the  pur- 
poses. If  a  hood  can  be  placed  over  this  sand-bath  leading, 
by  a  sheet-iron  stove-pipe,  into  the  chimney,  it  will  be  very 
useful  in  carrying  off  vapors  of  all  kinds. 

An  assay  furnace  may  readily  be  made,  as  we  have  sug- 
gested elsewhere  (see  Iron,  Dry  Assay),  by  using  fire-bricks 
or  even  common  red  bricks ;  the  latter  burn  out  sooner ;  but 
where  the  former  cannot  be  had  the  latter  will  answer,  placed 
in  a  sheet-iron  cylinder.  It  may  be  arranged  for  a  cupelling 
furnace  at  the  same  time,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  but 
we  give  the  plan  in  outline  here.  (Fig.  2). 

The  diameter  of  the  sheet-iron  cylinder  should  be  at  least 
17  inches,  better  20,  with  a  bottom  swagged  upon  it  tightly, 

FIG.  2. 


A        A     A 


t 

L 

• 

• 

~T  T 

,Ji-.r..L 

LIT 

yj&  i  . 

n 

%•& 

HE 

; 

....rr" 

i    P 


F    :      F    • 


the  top  open  and  fitted  with  a  flanged  heavy  sheet-iron  cover 
E  E.  Place  this  cylinder  as  in  the  figure  where  it  is  perma- 
nently to  be,  and  upon  a  hearth  of  common  brick  F  F  F. 
Begin  by  laying  one  round  of  bricks  and  fitting  them  in 
tightly,  leaving  an  opening  at  C  for  draft.  The  next  point 
will  be  the  grating,  which,  if  it  cannot  be  had  of  sufficient 


CAUTIONS    AND    SUGGESTIONS.  49 

diameter  at  a  stove  store,  may  be  made  from  }  inch  by  If 
inch  wrought  iron,  cut  in  lengths  to  suit,  with  1J  inch  be- 
tween bars.  If  wrought  iron  must  be  used  it  should  be  heavy 
to  keep  from  sagging  under  heat.  Better  to  put  your  carpen- 
ter to  work  to  make  a  pattern  of  that  size  and  have  it  cast. 
The  pattern  need  not  be  very  true  nor  neatly  finished  for  this 
work,  and  cast  iron  always  outlasts  wrought  iron.  But  gen- 
erally a  grate  may  be  had  from  the  stove  dealers  and  the 
brick  work  accommodated  to  the  grate.  A  wood  pattern 
allows  you  to  renew  the  grate  whenever  burned  out.  Con- 
tinue building  up  the  brick,  filling  up  the  interstices  with 
smaller  pieces,  and  perhaps  mortar  or  cement,  until  A  A  A  is 
reached;  at  P  place  a  brick  projection,  for  a  muffile  to  rest 
upon  as  described  under  iron,  silver,  and  gold  assays,  having 
previously  had  an  opening  at  the  front,  both  in  the  sheet-iron 
case  and  the  brick  lining.  The  muffle  should  be  bought 
before,  and  the  hole  and  shelf  brick  projection  fitted  to  the 
muffle.  Proceed  in  raising  the  lining  inside  the  curve,  leav- 
ing a  neat  hole  for  the  pipe  Z),  and  door  B.  At  the  door  top 
lay  a  flat  bar  from  one  side  to  another  in  order  that  the 
bricks  may  be  laid  over  the  opening,  and  thus  finish  till  the 
lower  edge  of  the  flange  is  reached.  Let  all  stand  for  a  day 
and  then  kindle  a  small  fire  with  chips  and  let  the  stove 
slowly  heat  until  all  is  dry.  The  cover  E  E  E  should  be  laid 
on  so  that  it  can  easily  be  removed,  and  when  used  as  a  fur- 
nace for  crucibles,  it  can  be  taken  off  entirely  when  drawing- 
out  the  crucibles.  An  important  matter  is  the  draft;  there 
should  be  a  good  draft,  and  a  plug  of  brick  fitted  at  A  to 
close  the  stove  up  when  the  muffle  is  not  used,  and  when 
used  the  muffle  should  be  put  in  only  when  the  fire  is  started 
and  the  coal  level  with  the  muffle  bottom,  then  other  coal 
4 


50  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

added  until  all  the  muffle  is  covered.  If  the  case  is  about  17 
in  diameter  and  the  bricks  4  inches  (fire  brick)  wide,  unless 
the  end  edges  are  knocked  off  the  fire  pot,  or  inside  space, 
will  be  only  9  inches,  unless  the  brick  be  placed  flat  side 
against  the  iron  case,  which  will  answer  very  well.  But  if  a 
larger  size  is  wanted  for  the  space  inside,  calculations  therefor 
are  easily  made.  We  have  had  one  furnace  20  inches  in 
diameter  with  common  brick  laid  on  edge,  which  has  worn 
with  one  relining  for  over  a  year  in  good  order.  Anthracite 
will  cut  through  quicker  than  coke  or  charcoal,  but  it  is  a 
more  lasting  fire  and  must  be  used  where  much  evaporation 
is  carried  on  running  through  the  night,  otherwise  coke  may 
be  used,  or  even  soft  coal  (bituminous). 

As  for  analytical  scales  for  quantitative  analyses,  one  that 
turns  at  less  than  a  milligramme  is  sufficiently  delicate,  the 
advantage  in  sensitive  scales  being  that  labor,  time,  and 
money  are  saved  to  the  assayer,  for  if  his  scales  will  not  allow 
of  accurate  weighing  small  quantities,  he  must  take  more  of 
the  assay,  and  use  more  of  the  reagents,  and  take  more  of  his 
time.  The  more  delicate  the  weighing,  therefore,  the  less 
quantity  of  assay  need  be  taken  to  arrive  at  the  same  results 
which  might  be  obtained  by  greater  trouble.  Never  weigh 
hot  articles  or  assays,  ascending  currents  always  making  the 
weighing  inaccurate.  If  your  scales  are  covered  with  a  tight 
case  and  in  a  dry  room,  nothing  need  be  put  within  the  case 
to  absorb  moisture;  but  if  you  suspect  any  moisture,  a  little 
unslacked  lime  or  dry  chloride  of  calcium  may  be  placed  in  a 
saucer  or  cup  within  and  back  of  the  scales  or  in  a  corner. 
Never  handle  small  or  large  weights  in  fine  scales  with  your 
fingers,  use  the  nippers  or  weight  tongs.  Filter  papers  may 
be  burned  in  porcelain  crucibles  as  well  as  in  the  platinum. 


HOW    TO    USE    REAGENTS    AND    GLASSWARE.  51 

Cut  your  papers  to  the  size  of  five  or  seven  inches  diameter, 
having  a  circular  piece  of  tin  as  a  constant  measure ;  take  two 
pieces  of  one  size  and  let  them  soak  in  pure  water  a  half  hour, 
and  then  drain  them,  and,  when  perfectly  dry,  roll  them  up, 
or  cut  one  up  so  that  it  will  go  into  the  crucible,  and  then 
burn  it  to  a  uniform  white,  all  the  carbon  being  burned  out ; 
let  the  crucible  cool  perfectly,  then  weigh  and  note  this 
weight ;  treat  the  other  piece  in  the  same  way  and  weigh  ;  if 
they  are  very  nearly  the  same  in  weight,  take  the  average 
weight  and  make  record  of  it,  on  a  similar  piece  of  paper,  as 
the  ash  weight  of  that  particular  size  minus  the  weight  of  the 
crucible  in  which  you  must  heat  the  filter  paper.  Always 
cool  and  weigh  before  placing  the  filter  paper  in  to  burn  ;  the 
weight  of  the  crucible  taken  from  the  weight  of  crucible  and 
ash,  gives  the  ash  weight  of  that  size  and  of  that  kind  of  filter 
paper.  By  this  means  we  can  calculate  the  weight  of  precipi- 
tations which  have  been  left  in  too  fine  a  powder  to  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  paper  in  filtration. 

How  TO  USE  REAGENTS  AND  GLASSWARE. 
In  testing  with  silver  nitrate  a  slovenly  assayer  will  use  ten 
or  fifteen  drops  upon  the  assay  in  a  test  tube,  when  two  drops 
are  sufficient.  Neatness  requires  but  one  drop  skillfully 
squeezed  out  by  lifting  the  stopper  a  little  way  up,  then  turn- 
ing the  bottle  over  and  gradually  pressing  in  the  stopper.  So 
it  is  with  all  reagents,  use  no  more  than  is  necessary.  By  a 
little  practice  you  may  always  drop  one  drop,  lift  the  stopper 
to  let  the  reagent  fall  back,  then  push  your  stopper  in.  Do 
all  this  with  one  hand,  except  perhaps  to  draw  the  stopper  out 
at  first.  Beside  the  economy  you  can  always  more  quickly 
judge  as  to  how  your  analysis  and  washing  when  filtering  are 


52  MINERALS,  MIXES,  AND    MINING. 

proceeding,  by  always  using  the  same  amount  of  reagents. 
Practise  on  one  drop.  Keep  all  things  cleanly.  Using  re- 
agents "  in  excess,"  means  that  in  using,  for  instance,  an 
alkali,  you  must  make  the  liquid  decidedly  alkaline  when  it 
was  previously  acid.  This  is  tested  by  either  smell,  as  in  am- 
monia, or  by  red  litmus  paper.  So,  also,  in  using  an  acid 
"  in  excess,"  only  in  such  case  it  is  in  the  reverse,  using  the 
blue  litmus  or  testing  by  absence  of  any  smell. 

CAUTION. — Very  frequently  in  using  ammonia  and  some 
other  reagents,  the  inexperienced  operator  may  find  that  to 
the  smell  and  to  the  sight,  and  by  the  test,  an  assay  may 
seem  to  be  what  it  is  not,  because  attention  has  been  drawn 
only  to  the  surface,  when  by  stirring  the  solution  it  may  be 
found  that  only  the  surface  to  some  small  depth  has  been 
acted  upon.  Therefore,  before  decision  has  been  made,  stir 
weK  the  solution,  mixing  the  top  and  bottom,  and  then  make 
your  inference  upon  the  whole. 

A  small  glass  rod,  one-quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  is 
generally  sufficient  for  solutions ;  but  a  tube  hermetically 
sealed  at  the  end,  or  both  ends,  is  stronger  than  a  solid  rod 
of  the  same  diameter.  A  platinum  wire  of  one-eighth  inch 
thickness,  or  smaller,  and  several  inches  long,  is  of  greater 
service,  especially  in  heated  alkaline  mixtures  or  solutions 
in  the  platinum  and  porcelain  crucibles,  but  such  a  short  rod 
is  not  fit  for  large  solutions. 

HEATING  GLASSWARE. — Some  begin  carelessly  as  to  heat, 
and  they  are  apt  to  continue,  to  their  great  discomfort,  loss, 
and  cost,  to  the  end.  Glassware  is  made,  or  intended,  to 
stand  heat,  but  it  does  not  always  answer  the  end  nor  the 
intentions  for  which  it  was  made.  In  the  hands  of  a  careful 
operator  it  seems  as  if  the  glass  becomes  annealed  after  use. 


HOW    TO    USE    REAGENTS    AND    GLASSWARE.  53 

At  any  rate,  in  the  same  operating  room  one  operator  will 
break  by  heat,  as  well  as  by  carelessness  in  other  ways,  one- 
third  more  of  his  stock  than  his  neighbor.  In  beginning, 
great  care  in  heating  and  using  brittle-ware  will,  as  a  habit 
and  "way  of  doing  things,"  stick  to  the  man  as  sharply  and 
closely  as  the  other  habit,  and  time  will  be  gained  as  well  as 
cost  avoided. 

Flasks  and  beaker  glasses  containing  solutions  may  be 
heated  by  a  spirit  lamp  more  safely  by  avoiding  the  place- 
ment of  the  sharp  upper  end  of  the  flame  against  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel.  Push,  or  hold,  at  the  beginning,  the  lamp  so 
that  the  flame  is  cut  off  half  way,  and  then,  moving  the 
flame  around  the  bottom  for  a  few  seconds,  withdraw  a  second 
or  two,  and  then,  returning  the  lamp,  perform  the  heating  in 
the  same  way  for  a  minute  or  so,  according  to  the  bulk  of 
solution  to  be  heated,  taking  care  (especially  when  the  liquid 
gets  hot)  that  the  wick  of  the  lamp  does  not  touch  the  glass ; 
any  good  glassware  may  always  allow  the  boiling  of  the 
solutions  without  any  danger  of  cracking  even  in  the  coldest 
room,  if  treated  in  this  way.  Some  glassware  breaks  more 
readily  than  others.  Preserve  that  glass  flask  or  breaker 
which  has  stood  the  heat  for  more  important  assays,  and  test 
your  new  flasks,  etc.,  with  water  (required  to  be  used  boiling) 
or  with  some  other  work  which,  in  case  of  the  fracture  of  the 
glass,  will  occasion  no  loss  worth  regretting. 

WATER  pure  enough  for  usual  work  may  be  caught,  as  we 
have  already  said,  from  a  roof  which  has  been  cleansed  by 
sufficient  rain.  If  not  near  the  seashore,  this  may  answer 
well  as  it  is,  but  it  may  contain  a  little  free  carbonic  dioxide 
(C02),  which  however  is  extremely  small,  and,  after  consider- 
able rainfall,  entirely  unimportant.  The  water  may  be  kept 


54  MINERALS,  MIXES,  AND    MINING. 

in  a  glass  or  sheet  copper  vessel  with  a  cover  for  general 
supply.  But  a  small  copper  box  placed  on  a  hot  stove  with 
a  pipe  leading  from  the  top  long  enough  to  enter  a  receiver, 
which  may  be  kept  cold  summer  or  winter,  will  furnish 
sufficient  pure  distilled  water  for  particularly  delicate  opera- 
tions. All  water  used  for  assay  purposes  should  be  evapo- 
rated upon  a  clean  platinum  strip  for  the  detection  of  any 
permanent  salts,  and  should  be  tested  for  chlorine  (by  silver 
nitrate)  and  for  C02  (by  lime  water  or  acetate  of  lead) ;  if  no 
stain  is  formed  after  evaporation,  and  no  effects  from  the 
reagents  just  mentioned,  it  may  be  used  instead  of  distilled 
water.  When  the  wind  blows  from  the  direction  of  the  ocean 
the  salt  may  be  detected  in  water  falling  even  60  miles  from 
the  coast,  and  during  such  rains  the  water  should  not  be  col- 
lected until  the  storms  or  rains  come  from  other  directions. 

A  List  of  usual  Chemical  Apparatus. 

For  a  private  laboratory  the  following  apparatus  is  neces- 
sary : — 

Beaker  glasses,  one  nest. 

Several  flasks,  from  8  to  16  oz.  Three  with  flat  bottoms 
called  matrasses. 

Half  dozen  test  tubes,  medium  sizes,  with  a  test  tube  stand. 

Porcelain  dish,  two  sizes.     6  to  8  inches  across  top. 

Half  dozen  porcelain  crucibles  with  covers,  of  about  1  oz. 
volume. 

One  pipette.     Two  or  three  feet  of  glass  tubing  J  inch  bore. 

Glass  funnel,  medium  size.  The  sides  must  be  straight, 
not  bulging. 

One  dozen  glass  stoppered  narrow-mouthed  bottles,  half  of 
them  6  oz.  size. 


LIST    OF    USUAL    CHEMICAL    APPARATUS.  55 

Half  dozen  wide-mouthed  glass  bottles  from  6  to  8  oz.  size. 
One  nest  Hessian  crucibles  for  dry  assay. 

The  following  chemicals  : — 

Nitric  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  sulphuric  acid. 

Caustic  soda,  caustic  potash,  aqua  ammonia,  alcohol,  one 
ounce  litmus,  molybdic  acid,  silk  bolting  cloth  from  the  mil- 
ler. Pure  filtering  paper. 

The  following  may  be  bought  or  made  in  the  laboratory  : 
oxalate  of  ammonium,  chloride  of  ammonium,  sulphate  of 
magnesium,  phosphate  of  sodium,  chloride  of  barium,  nitrate 
of  silver,  sulphide  of  iron,  permanganate  of  potassium,  hy- 
drosulphide  of  ammonium,  and  for  any  other  reagents  be- 
yond these  the  preceding  list  may  be  consulted.  But  the 
above  are  necessary  for  the  beginner. 

To  the  above  apparatus  we  may  add  the  alcoholic  lamp, 
which  may  be  of  glass  with  ground-glass  top,  or  of  metal 
made  by  the  tinner  with  a  perforated  cork  for  a  cap  for  the 
wick.  But  for  the  laboratory,  where  gas  is  not  ready  at 
hand,  one  of  the  most  useful  lamps  is  the  alcoholic  blast 
lamp  which  is  used  for  heating,  to  redness,  refractory  ores 
and  other  assays  in  the  crucible,  and  for  drying  and  calcin- 
ing assays,  bending  tubes,  etc. 

Where  the  beginner  does  not  choose  to  make  his  own  stand 
for  holding  his  evaporating  dishes,  etc.,  over  the  flame,  he 
may  purchase  either  the  wooden  or  iron  stands  as  seen  in  the 
catalogues  of  the  chemical  goods  and  apparatuses  of  any 
dealer.  So,  also,  as  to  test-tube  holders,  etc. 

We  have  given  the  above  list  and  directions  as  presenting 
about  the  smallest  stock  with  which  the  student  in  analysis 
can  begin  ;  and  to  this  we  should  add  the  platinum  crucible. 


56  m  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

which,  after  a  while,  he  will  have  to  purchase,  with  its  cap- 
sule, and  it  would  be  well  if  he  added  among  the  necessaries 
the  blowpipe. 

To  those  articles  which  we  have  mentioned  above,  the 
beginner  may  add  as  he  progresses,  but  he  should  keep  in 
mind  the  fact  that  some  of  the  best  analysts  in  Europe  and 
America  have  met  with  their  greatest  successes  while  using 
very  simple  appliances  in  kind  and  very  few  in  number 
beyond  those  which  were  of  their  own  manufacture  or  in- 
vention. 

IN  FOLDING  FILTER  PAPERS  the  simplest  way  is  to  fold 
them  half  over  and  then  quarter,  and  so  on  until  the  pleats 
are  about  quarter  to  half  inch,  and  then  opening  them  part- 
way,  push  the  whole  down  into  the  funnel  through  which 
the  filtration  is  to  be  performed.  Always  before  using  a  filter 
paper  hold  it  up  to  the  light  and  examine  if  there  be  any 
thin  spots  where  there  may  be  an  opening,  and  reject  it  if  the 
appearance  is  very  nearly  that  of  a  hole,  as  frequently,  under 
these  conditions,  the  paper  is  likely  to  let  the  whole  assay 
down  at  once. 

WHERE  THE  LOWER  PART  OF  THE  INVERTED  CONE  of  the 
funnel  is  as  wide  as  a  half  inch,  or  a  little  less,  it  is  advisable 
to  make  a  little  inverted  cone  of  platinum  foil  just  large 
enough  to  cover  the  hole,  and  let  the  sharp  end  of  the  filter 
paper  fit  into  the  cone.  This  will  act  as  a  brace  to  the  paper, 
and  the  filtrate  will  pass  through  just  as  well  as  before. 
Nothing  must  be  filtrated  over  this  which  would  dissolve  any 
of  the  platinum  (as  aqua  regia  or  nitro-muriatic  acid),  but 
generally  where  filtrates  are  rapidly  made  and  weakened  very 
soon,  this  evil  result  is  seldom  to  be  apprehended. 

In  order  to  make  the  platinum  cone  fit  well,  a  neatly  fitted 


LIST    OF    USUAL    CHEMICAL    APPARATUS.  57 

small,  or  miniature,  funnel  may  be  made  of  writing  paper 
dampened  and  closely  pressed  up  against  the  glass  sides  of  the 
funnel  in  that  part  for  which  the  platinum  is  to  be  fitted. 
Then  prepare  a  thick  cream  of  plaster  of  Paris  with  some  two 
or  three  drops  of  gum-arabic  solution  in  water  with  which  the 
cream  is  made,  the  amount  of  plaster  being  only  enough  to 
fill  the  bottom  part  of  the  funnel  where  the  paper  is.  Pour, 
when  well  mixed,  this  mixture  into  the  funnel  very  slowly 
till  it  begins  to  set,  or  stiffen,  which  it  will  not  do  for  some 
minute  or  two,  because  of  the  gum-arabic  solution.  Pour  all 
in  and  let  it  harden,  thrusting  into  the  mixture  a  small  rod 
of  wood,  three  or  four  inches  long,  by  which  to  draw  it  out 
when  hard.  Let  it  stand  for  an  hour,  draw  it  out,  remove 
the  damp  paper,  and  when  quite  hard  it  is  ready  to  mould 
the  platinum  upon.  In  order  to  do  this,  make  a  paper  funnel 
of  the  exact  size  wanted,  then  laying  this  upon  the  platinum 
carefully  mark  out  the  size  and  cut  the  platinum  and  fit  it 
upon  the  plaster  cone,  which  when  dry  will  be  found  nearly 
as  hard  as  a  piece  of  marble.  Burnish  it  down,  fitting  it 
neatly,  then  place  it  in  the  funnel  and  it  will  exactly  fit  and 
will  allow  a  great  pressure  upon  the  filter  paper  without 
breaking  the  paper. 

If  a  jar  have  a  large  cork  fitted  nicely  into  the  top,  and  a 
hole  be  cut  into  which  this  funnel  may  fit  air-tight,  and 
another  hole  cut  for  another  tube  bent  at  an  angle  and  fitted 
in  air-tight,  we  shall  now  have  an  apparatus  for  rapid  filter- 
ing. If  when  filtering  is  going  on  through  the  funnel,  the 
mouth  be  applied  to  the  second  tube  and  the  air  drawn  out, 
the  water  will  run  through  the  filter  with  a  rapidity  propor- 
tioned to  the  vacuum  formed  in  the  jar. 

Two  thin  sheet  copper  cans,  of  the  size  of  half  gallon  jars, 


58 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


may  be  made  to  make  the  vacuum  desired  for  rapid  filtering 
and  after  the  contrivance  as  shown  in  Fig.  3  : — 


FIG.  3. 


A  and  B  (Fig  3.)  are  the  two  copper,  or  tinned  copper  cans, 
connected  by  a  rubber  tube.  D  is  a  glass  jar  used  for  this 
method  of  filtering.  Use  pinch  stops,  or  clips,  at  S  S  S  to 
arrest  the  flow  when  such  arrest  is  necessary;  open  the  tube  at 
the  lowest  S  and  that  near  A,  and  the  water  will  flow  into  the 
lowest  reservoir  B  and  create  a  partial  vacuum  in  A.  Open 
the  tube  at  S  nearest  to  D  and  a  similar  vacuum  is  formed  in 
D,  and  the  filtration  begins  and  proceeds  rapidly  in  proportion 
to  the  perpendicular  distance  of  the  two  reservoirs.  When 
the  lower  one  is  filled,  exchange  places  and  tubes  and  the  pro- 
cess is  renewed.  In  order  to  separate  the  rubber  connection 
from  the  filter  jar,  the  tin  or  glass  tube  in  the  jar  should  be 
very  nearly  of  the  size  of  the  opening  of  the  rubber  tube,  so 
that  it  may  slip  off  easily;  it  may  be  wrapped  with  a  cotton 
thread  if  it  is  not  sufficiently  tight.  Of  course  stop-cocks  of  a 


LIST    OF    USUAL    CHEMICAL    APPARATUS.  59 

small  size  costing  more  would  be  more  convenient,  and  indeed 
they  must  be  used  where  great  pressure  is  adopted,  since,  in 
that  case,  stronger  rubber  tubes  must  be  used,  so  strong  and 
thick  that  pinch-stops  would  not  close  the  tube.  The  opera- 
tor must  consult  his  own  judgment  as  to  the  pressure  desired. 
Ten  feet  apart  for  the  cans  is  sufficient  distance  for  ordinary 
use,  and  less  will  be  a  great  saving  in  time  expended  in  wash- 
ing, or  filtering,  and,  with  a  little  care  and  ingenuity,  small 
wide-mouthed  flasks  may  be  used,  but  a  glass  jar  is  strong 
and  may  readily  be  emptied  of  its  contents  despite  the 
shoulder,  provided  the  angle  of  the  shoulder  is  not  too  nearly 
that  of  a  right  angle.  The  use  of  the  wash  bottle,  or  pipette, 
will  aid  in  clearing  out  any  remains  of  the  filtrate  where 
that  is  to  be  transferred  from  the  jar  to  the  beaker  glass.  A 
block  of  wood  may  be  fitted  into  a  jar  with  rubber  band 
around  the  edge,  so  as  to  make  an  air-tight  joint,  and  it  may 
be  easily  removed  and  as  easily  replaced. 

PLATINUM  CRUCIBLES  should  not  be  too  thin,  and  should  be 
heated  over  an  alcohol  lamp,  but  as  little  as  possible  with  the 
ordinary  city  gas,  as  that  induces  roughness  and  incipient 
corrosion.  Although  caustic  alkalies  (potash  and  soda)  must 
sometimes  be  heated  to  red  heat  in  the  platinum  crucible, 
and  thereby  some  wearing  away  by  corrosion  of  the  crucible 
takes  place,  this  cannot  be  avoided,  and  the  only  alternative 
is  to  weigh  the  perfectly  clean  crucible  frequently  to  notice 
the  decreased  weight  so  as  to  keep  an  accurate  account  for 
such  assays  as  must  be  weighed  with  the  crucible,  and  the 
weight  of  the  crucible  subtracted.  The  action  of  alkalies 
treated  in  the  way  above  described  might  cut  holes  in  the 
porcelain  crucible,  hence  they  should  not  be  used,  except 
where  the  destruction  of  the  crucible  and  the  additional  im- 


60  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

purity  of  the  substance  of  the  crucible  are  of  no  importance 
in  the  result  desired. 

Brasque  is  the  term  used  to  express  the  condition  of  a 
crucible,  usually  Hessian,  which  has  been  lined  inside  with 
charcoal.  In  order  to  perform  this  work  it  is  best  to  mix 
some  powdered  charcoal  with  molasses  to  the  consistency  of 
thick  paste,  and  with  a  paddle-formed  stick  line  the  sides 
thoroughly,  leaving  no  part  uiilined.  In  some  cases  where 
the  crucible  is  small  it  is  well  to  fill  it  full  with  the  mixture, 
pressing  it  down  hard,  and  then  cutting  the  hole  out  with  a 
pointed  knife.  After  gradually  heating  till  all  the  vapor  or 
gas  from  the  molasses  has  passed  off,  and  smoothing  inside, 
the  crucible  is  ready  for  work.  When  covered  tightly  over 
by  a  piece  of  tile  or  brick  (luted),  ores  may  be  reduced  under 
great  heat,  and  neither  the  slag  nor  metal  can  attack  or 
injure  the  crucible,  and  the  slag  can  be  separated  easily  from 
the  crucible  which,  without  the  brasque,  would  cut  holes  into 
the  sides. 

Fuming  nitric  acid  is  sometimes  of  great  use  in  the  reduc- 
tion of  stubborn  sulphides  and  in  some  other  operations.  It 
is  easily  made  from  dry  and  broken  up  saltpetre  (potassium 
nitrate).  Use  a  pint  or  quart  tubulated  glass  retort  placed 
in  a  retort  stand.  Put  in  only  about  half  a  pound  of  salt- 
petre, and  pour  over  the  saltpetre  enough  undiluted  sulphuric 
acid  to  cover  the  contents.  Introduce  the  beak  of  the  retort 
into  a  glass  stopped  bottle,  which  should  better  be  surrounded 
by  ice  or  cold  water.  After  everything  is  arranged,  apply 
heat  by  either  an  alcoholic  flame  or  coal-oil  light  set  so  as 
not  to  smoke  the  glass.  The  acid  soon  comes  over  and  is 
condensed  in  the  bottle.  After  all  condensation  ceases,  with- 
draw the  bottle,  introduce  the  stopper,  and  set  the  yellowish- 


LIST    OF    USUAL    CHEMICAL    APPARATUS.  61 

looking  fuming  acid  away  out  of  light  and  in  a  cool  place. 
The  residue  in  the  retort  may  be  purified  by  recrystallization 
and  used  as  disulphate  of  potash  in  assays  as  directed  in  the 
text.  But  as  a  flux  for  some  very  stubborn  ores,  as  those  of 
chromic  iron  and  aluminous  minerals,  where  it  may  be  used 
for  making  them  soluble  in  acids,  the  following  additional 
preparation  is  necessary  :  Test  some  of  the  recrystallization 
for  lead,  or  arsenic,  which  may  have  existed  in  the  sulphuric 
acid  used.  Recrystallization  will  render  it  sufficiently  pure. 
Then  mix  87  parts  (weight)  crystals  (dry)  with  49  parts  pure 
sulphuric  acid,  and  heat  to  low  redness  until  the  mass  is  in 
limpid  fusion.  A  platinum  crucible  should  be  used,  and  the 
work  repeated,  if  the  crucible  is  small,  to  obtain  sufficient 
quantity.  Pour  out  the  melted  mass  on  a  porcelain  plate  or 
fragment.  After  cooling,  break  the  mass  into  pieces  and  keep 
in  a  bottle  for  use. 

While  some  chemists  advise  the  use  of  potassium  disul- 
phate, others  (J.  Lawrence  Smith,  for  instance)  think  that 
sodium  disulphate  is  much  more  soluble  in  water  after  the 
same  ore  treatment. 

SODIUM  DISULPHATE  is  used  with  powdered  assays  in  the 
same  way  as  the  disulphate  of  potassium,  but  is  considered 
much  more  soluble  in  water,  after  the  ore  or  assay  treatment. 

The  preparation  is  similar  to  that  of  potassium  disulphate, 
only  that  Glauber's  salt  (sulphate  of  soda)  of  the  shops  is  used 
and  purified  by  crystallization  exactly  as  in  the  previously 
mentioned  disulphate  of  potassium.  The  salt  should  be 
heated  at  a  gentle  heat  to  drive  off  its  water  of  crystallization. 
Then  7  parts  of  salt  to  5  parts  pure  sulphuric  acid  should  be 
heated  to  low  redness  in  a  platinum  crucible  or  dish,  and  all 
treated  as  in  the  case  of  the  potassium  disulphate. 


ECONOMIC  TREATMENT  AND  HISTORY  OF  THE 
USEFUL  MINERALS. 


IN  the  following  pages  we  shall  treat  of  all  the  important 
minerals  in  order.  We  have  proceeded  upon  the  principle  of 
stating  that  which  most  recent  discovery  or  experiment  has 
shown  to  be  most  probable  in  the  economic  history  or  most 
efficient  in  the  treatment  of  that  particular  mineral  under 
consideration,  and  generally  omitting  unimportant  statements 
and  suggestions,  however  recent  or  novel,  excepting  where 
such  statements  and  suggestions  might  render  clearer  what 
has  already  been  stated. 

Especially  in  the  analysis  or  the  determination  of  a  mineral 
we  have  frequently  had  reason  to  feel  that  one  good  method 
skillfully  pursued  was  followed  by  better  results  than  another 
which,  although  better  in  some  degree,  was  attended  with  cer- 
tain complications  or  requirements  which  rendered  it  uncer- 
tain as  to  results,  or  unnecessary. 

The  student  who  has  made  himself  acquainted  with  the 
work  and  suggestions  of  the  previous  pages,  will  find  little 
difficulty  in  understanding  the  references  in  the  following 
pages. 

The  hardness  of  a  mineral  is  always  compared  with  that  of 
the  diamond  rated  at  ten,  and  the  scale  of  descent,  in  degree, 
may  be  formed  by  comparison  with  the  following  substances, 

(63) 


64  MINERALS,  MIXES,  AND    MINING. 

which  may  be  obtained  from  any  mineral  collection,  or  sales- 
man, remembering  that  the  samples  must  be  as  pure  as  can 
be  obtained,  preferably  in  crystal  form,  and  also  that  there 
may  be  a  slight  difference  in  degree  in  hardness  even  in  the 
same  species,  so  that  determinations  must  be  left,  in  some 
small  degree,  to  the  judgment  of  the  mineralogist. 

10.  Diamond. 

9.  Corundum  (pure  emery). 

8.  Spinel,  topaz. 

7.  Quartz  (rock  crystal),  Beryl  7.5,  Zircon  crystal  7.5. 

6.  Pyrite,  marcasite,  massive  red  hematite,  cassiterite,  gar- 
net 6.5,  feldspars  6  to  7. 

5.  Leu  copy  rite,  mispickel  (arsenopyrite)  5.5,  fibrous  limo- 
nite  homogeneous  specimen,  apatite. 

4.  Zinc  blende  (sphalerite)  3.5  to  4,  fluor  spar  4,  zincite 
(red  oxide)  4.5. 

3.  Calcite  (crystalline  specimens)  common  2.5  to  3.5,  pyr- 
rhotite  3.5,  Barite  (Barytes  sulphate)  2.5  to  3.5. 

2.  Sulphur  (native)  (brimstone),  galena  2.5,  salt  (common) 
in  mass  or  crystals  2.5,  mica  (phlogopite)  2.5,  anthra- 
cite 2  to  2.5. 

1.  Graphite,  "  black  lead,"  native,  realgar  1.5,  sal  ammo- 
niac 1.5,  gypsum  1.5  to  2  copal. 


GOLD. 

OCCURRENT  CONDITION  AND  FORM  IN  NATURE.  NATIVE. — 
If  crystalline,  generally  in  that  pyramidal  form  known  as 
the  octahedral  or  eight-side  figure,  similar  to  that  which 


GOLD.  65 

would  result  from  joining  together,  at  their  bases,  two  equi- 
lateral four-sided  pyramids.  Frequently  the  gold  occurs  in 
arborescent  forms,  and  in  one  specimen,  in  the  author's  pos- 
session, the  octahedral  form  occurs  only  at  the  termination 
of  the  aborescent  mass.  Also  in  irregular  masses  called 
nuggets,  in  flattened  scales,  in  particles  called  dust,  and  in 
various  intermediate  shapes,  appearing  as  though  the  gold 
had  been  melted  and  conformed  to  the  substances  in  which 
it  cooled.  It  is,  however,  very  improbable  that  all  such  gold 
was  melted,  certainly  some  masses  have  once  been  in  solu- 
tion in  some  liquid  anterior  to  the  time  when  they  assumed 
the  shapes  they  now  retain. 

HARDNESS  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. — Hardness  from  2.5  to 
3  ;  grav.  from  15  to  19.34,  the  latter  when  quite  pure  (Rose). 

COLOR  varies  from  dark  yellow,  when  quite  pure,  to  light 
yellow,  according  to  amount  of  silver  in  composition. 

DUCTILE  AND  EXTREMELY  MALLEABLE. 

COMPOSITION. — Native  gold  seldom,  if  ever,  occurs  pure. 
The  usual  alloy  is  silver,  but  sometimes  copper,  palladium, 
rhodium,  and  iron.  Judging  from  a  large  number  of  analy- 
ses, native  gold  always  contains  silver,  very  seldom  any  more 
than  a  trace  of  copper  and  iron.  Dana  mentions  (see  under 
gold)  one  analysis  showing  traces  of  tin,  lead,  and  cobalt,  and 
one  having  a  trace  of  bismuth,  both  foreign  specimens.  In 
the  cases  of  alloys  with  palladium  and  rhodium,  of  the  former 
10  per  cent.,  of  the  latter  34  to  43  per  cent.  They  were 
rare  and  foreign  specimens,  and  not  worthy  of  further  men- 
tion. 

UNITED  STATES  LOCALITIES. — Gold  is  widely  distributed, 
and  occurs  where  it  is  so  minutely  diffused  that  it  would  be 
a  loss  of  time  and  money  to  attempt  to  gather  it.  It  is  not 


66  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

surprising,  therefore,  that  gold  may  be  frequently  found 
where  no  useful  results  follow  the  finding.  From  various 
authorities,  including  Dana,  Whitney,  Silliman,  and  others, 
we  gather  the  following  summary  showing  the  distribution, 
the  associations,  and  geologic  horizons  of  gold  as  generally 
met  with  in  the  United  States  and  Territories.  There  are 
numberless  mines  along  the  mountains  of  Western  America, 
and  others  along  the  eastern  range  of  the  Appalachians  from 
Alabama  and  Georgia  to  Labrador,  beside  some  indications 
of  gold  in  portions  of  the  intermediate  Azoic  region  about 
Lake  Superior.  They  occur  at  many  points  along  the  higher 
regions  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  ...  in  New  Mexico, 
near  Santa  Fe,  Carillos,  etc.,  in  Arizona,  in  the  San  Frari- 
sisco,  Wauba,  Yuma,  and  other  districts ;  in  Colorado  abun- 
dant, but  the  gold  is  largely  in  auriferous  pyrites ;  in  Utah 
and  Idaho.  Also  along  ranges  between  the  summit  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  in  the  Humboldt  region,  and  elsewhere. 
Also  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  mostly  on  its  western  slope  (the 
mines  of  the  eastern  being  principally  silver  mines).  The 
auriferous  belt  may  be  said  to  begin  in  the  California  Penin- 
sula. Near  the  Tejou  Pass  it  enters  California,  and  beyond, 
for  180  miles,  it  is  sparingly  auriferous,  the  slate  rocks  being 
of  small  breadth ;  but  beyond  this,  northward,  the  slates 
increase  in  extent,  and  the  mines  in  number  and  productive- 
ness, and  they  continue  thus  for  200  miles  or  more. 

Gold  occurs  also  in  the  coast  range  in  many  localities,  but 
mostly  in  too  small  quantities  to  be  profitably  worked.  The 
regions  to  the  north  in  Oregon  and  Washington  are  at 
many  points  auriferous,  and  productively  so,  though  to  a 
less  extent  than  in  California.  Gold  occurs  in  Virginia, 
North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  or  along  a  line  from 


GOLD.  67 

the  Rappahannock  to  the  Coosa  in  Alabama.  But  the  region 
may  be  said  to  extend  north  to  Canada ;  for  gold  has  been 
found  at  Albion  and  Madrid  in  Maine ;  Canaan  and  Lisbon 
in  New  Hampshire ;  Bridgewater,  Vermont ;  Dedham,  Mass. 
Traces  also  occur  in  Franconia  Township,  Montgomery  Co., 
Pennsylvania.  In  Virginia,  the  principal  deposits  are  in 
Spotsylvania  Co.,  on  the  Rappahannock,  at  the  United  States 
mines  and  at  other  places  to  the  southwest;  in  Stafford 
County  ten  miles  from  Falmouth;  in  Culpeper  County,  on 
Rapidan  River;  in  Orange,  Goochland,  Louisa,  and  Bucking- 
ham counties.  In  North  Carolina,  chiefly  in  Montgomery, 
Cabarrus,  Mecklenburg,  and  Lincoln;  in  the  alluvial  soil  in 
the  counties  of  Burke,  McDowell  and  Rutherford.  In 
Georgia,  in  Habersham  County,  and  in  Rabun,  Hall,  Lump- 
kiri,  at  Dahlonega,  and  in  Cherokee  County.  In  South  Caro- 
lina, the  principal  gold  regions  are  the  Fairforest  in  Union 
District  and  the  Lynch's  Creek  and  Catawba  regions,  chiefly 
in  Lancaster  and  Chesterfield  Districts,  also  in  Pickens  Dis- 
trict, adjoining  Georgia.  (Dana.)  Prof.  Frank  H.  Bradley, 
after  speaking  of  the  copper  mines  at  Ducktown,  Polk  Co., 
Tennessee,  writes  that:  "  On  both  sides  of  the  copper  leads, 
but  most  abundantly  to  the  south,  there  are  gold-bearing 
schists,  in  which  small  operations  have  been  carried  on  for 
many  years.  The  only  point  in  Tennessee  which  has  at- 
tracted special  attention  is  on  the  head  waters  of  Coca  Creek. 
The  ;  placer '  deposits  are  but  moderately  rich  and  of  rather 
limited  area.  Gold-bearing  quartz  veins  have  been  found  at 
two  or  three  points,  but  little  work  has  been  done  in  them. 
Farther  south,  in  Georgia,  the  decomposition  of  the  rocks  has 
gone  on  to  greater  depths,  more  material  has  been  concen- 
trated, and  valuable  placer  properties  are  known  at  several 


68  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

points;  at  two  or  three  points,  hydraulic  mining  is  carried  on 
successfully,  as  in  the  region  about  Dahlonega.  I  think  that 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  there  are  as  rich  mines 
in  Georgia  and  North  Carolina  as  any  in  California,  The 
Tennessee  deposits  have  been  but  little  known  thus  far,  but 
there  are  geological  reasons  for  expecting  that  good  mines  will 
yet  be  developed  there." 

In  the  Appalachian  range  systematic  gold  mining  can  be 
said  to  have  only  been  carried  on  in  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina and  Georgia,  the  gold  product  of  Alabama,  Virginia, 
Tennessee  and  Maryland  having  been  produced  by  petty  min- 
ing and  by  a  few  attempts  of  development,  which  have  not 
yet  reached  the  stage  of  permanent  mining.  Of  the  product 
of  the  first  three  states  mentioned,  which  in  favorable  years 
has  reached  nearly  half  a  million  dollars,  a  certain  proportion 
has  been  derived  from  placer  mines,  but  the  greater  from 
veins  not  yet  worked  below  the  zone  of  oxidation;  the  product 
has  hence  been  subject  to  fluctuation.  From  1880  to  1892 
North  Carolina  produced  $1,926,244;  South  Carolina  $766,- 
609,  and  Georgia  $1,721,760. 

The  mines  of  South  America  and  Mexico  were  estimated 
by  Humboldt,  over  sixty  years  ago,  to  yield  annually  $11,- 
500,000,  which  much  exceeds  the  present  product.  The 
yield  of  California  in  1849,  the  first  year  after  the  discovery 
of  the  gold,  was  $5,000,000.  The  yield  in  1853  was  nearly 
$60,000,000.  Since  then  it  has  diminished,  and  the  amount 
in  1866  was  $27,000,000.  Montana,  Colorado,  Idaho,  and 
Nevada,  raised  the  total  from  the  United  States  for  the  year 
1866  to  $86,000,000.  The  same  fact  of  decrease  may  be 
shown  in  connection  with  the  gold  yield  of  Australia;  from 
$60,000,000  for  a  number  of  years  it  fell  to  $30,000,000  in 


GOLD.  69 

1863,  1864,  1865,  this  sum  being  an  average  for  each  of  these 
years.  This  fact  of  decrease  of  the  gold  yield  in  mining 
districts  after  a  series  of  years,  inversely  considered,  suggests 
the  probability  that  large  amounts  of  gold  were  derived  from 
the  mines  of  ancient  times,  and,  in  that  virgin  period  of 
gold  hunting,  the  metal  far  exceeded  in  quantity  any  amount 
which  in  these  latter  days  has  been  revealed. 

From  The  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States  (Williams), 
1885,  the  total  annual  production  of  gold  in  the  United 
States  from  the  year  1867  ($53,000,000)  decreased  to  1875 
($32,000,000),  when  it  increased  to  1878  ($51,000,000),  and 
then  decreased  till  1883  ($30,000,000),  since  which  time  it 
has  been  on  the  increase.  The  greatest  annual  production 
was  in  1853,  $65,000,000.  The  production  of  gold  in  the 
United  States  from  1884  to  1893,  was  as  follows : 


1884  .         .  $30,800,000 

1885  .         .+  31,800,000 

1886  .         .  35,000,000 

1887  .  ^  33,000,000 

1888  -.;         .  35,175,000 


1889  .  .  $32,886,000 

1890  .  .  32,845,000 

1891  \  .  33,175,000 

1892  :,.  ..  33,000,000 

1893  .  35,955,000 


One  of  the  practical  suggestions  derived  from  the  fact  that 
estimates  of  the  above  nature  cannot  always  be  relied  upon, 
is  that  there  are  many  private  enterprises  the  reports  of  whose 
product  are  not  made  public.  There  are  small  firms  or  com- 
panies, and  even  individuals,  content  to  make  comparatively 
small  sums,  who,  by  less  outlay  and  more  toil,  have  actually 
done  better  than  large  companies.  These  have  never  re- 
ported. 

Alaska  is  growing  rapidly  into  a  gold  producing  country, 
the  annual  product  showing  a  steady  increase  since  1880. 


70 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


This  increase  is  remarkable  rather  for  its  regularity  than  its 
amount,  and  is  hence  of  more  favorable  import  for  the  per- 
manency of  the  development  of  the  mineral  resources  than 
would  be  one  subject  to  violent  fluctuations.  One  important 
mine,  the  Tread  well,  upon  Douglas  Island,  in  latitude  58°, 
produces  at  present  two-thirds  of  the  estimated  output.  It  is 
a  quartz  vein  400  feet  in  width,  carrying  free  gold  and  aurif- 
erous pyrites,  which  outcrops  on  a  steep  hillside  running 
down  to  the  sea-shore.  The  following  table  shows  the  pro- 
duction of  gold  in  Alaska  since  1880  : 


Years. 

Value. 

Years. 

Value. 

1880 

$5,951 

1887 

$675,000 

1881 

15,000 

1888 

850,000 

1882 

150,000 

1889 

900,000 

1883 

300,000 

1890 

762,000 

1884 

200,000 

1891 

900,000 

1885 

300,000 

1892 

1,000,000 

1886 

446,000 

1893 

1,010,100 

The  mineral  belt  thus  far  developed  in  Alaska  has  a  longi- 
tudinal extent  of  about  100  miles  in  a  northwestern  and 
southeastern  direction,  but  is  said  to  be  only  a  few  miles 
wide,  and,  even  should  it  prove  geologically  wider,  climatic 
conditions  will  probably  confine  the  area  of  profitable  work- 
ing to  the  immediate  proximity  of  the  ocean.  The  general, 
geological  conditions  that  prevail  in  this  belt,  as  far  as 
known,  show  a  close  resemblance  to  the  gold  belt  of  Cali- 
fornia ;  like  the  latter,  the  values  are  principally  in  gold, 


GOLD.  71 

which  is  accompanied  in  certain  parts  of  the  region  by  silver, 
galena  and  copper  ores. 

The  annual  output  of  gold  and  silver  in  the  United  States 
is  about  the  same  in  value  as  that  of  pig-iron  at  present 
prices,  but  far  below  the  value  of  the  coal  production.  (Wil- 
liams, 1885.) 

Bearing  in  mind  the  necessary  imperfection  of  statistics, 
since  returns  from  many  countries  such  as  China  and  some 
of  the  South  American  States  are  at  times  entirely  wanting, 
the  world's  production  of  gold  runs  fairly  regular  from  1880 
to  1887  at  a  little  over  $100,000,000.  From  1887  to  1892 
there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  to  $125,000,000.  The 
greater  part  of  this  product  has  come  from  the  United  States, 
Australia  and  Russia,  in  the  order  named,  during  the  first 
term  of  years,  and  in  the  second  term  Africa  has  gradually 
risen  to  a  nearly  equal  rank  with  Russia,  while  the  latter's 
product  has  slightly  increased. 

GEOLOGY  OF  GOLD  AND  ITS  ASSOCIATIONS. — There  is  no 
positive  evidence  that  gold  exists  in  nature  in  any  other  than 
the  metallic  state,  although  it  is  believed  by  some  to  exist  as 
a  suplhuret  in  some  varieties  of  pyrites.  (Bloxam.)  And, 
in  behalf  of  this  view,  it  may  be  offered  that  the  free  gold  in 
many  places  has  evidently  resulted  from  the  oxidation  of  the 
iron  pyrites  and  the  consequent  unclothing  of  the  native 
gold  embedded  in  the  pyrites.  If  some  auriferous  pyrites  be 
treated  carefully  with  nitric  acid,  particles  of  gold  are  left  in 
the  native  state,  although  there  was  apparently  no  possible 
method,  by  comminution  or  any  other  physical  treatment,  of 
discovering  the  gold,  even  by  the  microscope.  This  has  been 
tried  in  specimens  taken  from  the  Columbia  mines  near 
Helena,  Montana,  in  which  the  gold  appears  to  be  almost 
chemically  combined  with  the  pyrites  as  a  sulphide  of  gold. 


72  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Nevertheless,  gold  will  combine  with  sulphur  in  the 
laboratory,  to  form  two  GOLD  SULPHIDES  :  (1)  Au2S,  Aurous 
sulphide,  formed  as  a  dark  brown,  almost  black  precipitate, 
when  hydrogen  sulphide  is  passed  into  a  boiling  solution  of 
auric  chloride ;  (2)  Auric  sulphide,  Au2S3,  is  precipitated  in 
yellow  flocks  when  hydrogen  sulphide  is  passed  into  a  cold 
dilute  solution  of  auric  chloride. 

The  extent  to  which  gold  is  distributed  in  small  quantities 
is  remarkable,  for  there  are  few  countries  where  it  may  not 
be  found,  but,  in  many  cases,  in  such  finely  disseminated 
condition  as  to  offer  no  inducement  to  those  who  are  wise 
and  do  not  desire  to  lose  money  to  collect  it.  So  that  the 
discovery  of  gold  is  by  no  means  a  proof  that,  commercially 
speaking,  there  is  any  value  added  to  the  land  where  the 
gold  has  been  found,  or  that,  in  any  true  sense,  a  working 
on  that  land  may  be  called  a  gold  mine. 

Gold  has  been  found  in  Cornwall,  England,  in  the  same 
alluvial  deposits  wherein  tin  ore  occurs,  and  in  Koiiigsberg 
the  metallic  gold  is  disseminated  through  sulphuret  of  silver ; 
in  Edelfors  in  Smoland,  Sweden,  it  is  associated  with  pyrites. 
The  sands  of  the  Rhine  contain  minute  quantities  (eight 
million  parts  of  sand  to  one  of  gold),  and  yet  it  is  worked 
when  other  work  is  scarce.  (Bloxam.)  The  sands  of  the 
Danube,  Rhone,  Tagus,  and  many  other  European  rivers, 
afford  gold  and  have  been,  at  different  periods,  worked  for 
this  metal. 

Veins  of  pyrites  containing  gold  are  found  in  a  granite  rock 
at  the  foot  of  Monte  Rosa.  (Bloxam.)  Siberia  yields  gold 
distributed  through  horn  stone. 

In  Australia  it  is  found  deposited  upon  pipe  clay  under  the 
alluvium. 


GOLD.  73 

But  the  gold  of  the  world  has  been  mostly  gathered  from 
the  gravels  and  sands  of  rivers,  and  the  sand  of  any  river  is 
worth  washing  for  the  gold  it  contains,  if  it  will  yield  twenty- 
four  grains  in  a  hundred  weight ;  and  provided,  always,  that 
labor  is  cheap.  The  sand  of  the  African  rivers,  however, 
often  yields  sixty-three  grains  of  gold  dust  in  not  more  than 
five  pounds  weight. 

Gold  occurs  in  rocks  of  various  ages,  from  the  Azoic  to 
the  Cretaceous  or  Tertiary,  but  the  in  situ  or  original  rock 
is  the  metamorphic,  in  which  veins  of  quartz  are  found  tra- 
versing the  metamorphic  and  charged  with  gold  in  strings, 
plates,  scales,  and  masses  of  crystals.  (Dana.)  Many  theo- 
ries are  offered  for  its  appearance  which  are  not  important, 
but  gold  is  generally  found  in  the  crystalline  rocks,  or  is 
derived  from  such  rocks,  after  these  rocks  have  through  ages 
become  disintegrated  and  carried  away  by  means  of  the  trans- 
porting agency  of  water. 

It  is  plain,  therefore,  that  the  mineralogist  should  be 
largely  guided  by  the  geologic  intimations  in  his  explora- 
tions for  this  metal. 

Very  frequently  the  strata  which  bear  gold  are  not  dis- 
tinctly denned  or  separated  from  those  strata,  or  parts  of 
strata,  wThich  are  entirely  barren.  So  that  nothing  in  the 
nature  of  the  rock  can,  in  all  cases,  determine  it  as  gold- 
bearing.  This  is  frequently  illustrated  in  North  Carolina, 
where,  according  to  Dr.  Genth,  "  it  (the  gold)  has  been  acted 
upon  by  chemical  agencies,  dissolved  and  precipitated  again, 
and  has  assumed  a  crystalline  structure ;  it  has  accumulated 
in  strings  which  sometimes  form  lenticular  and  more  highly 
auriferous  masses  in  the  beds,  and  is  associated  with  crystal- 
line quartz,  pyrites,  chalcopyrite,  galenite,  blende,  mispickel, 
etc." 


74  MINERALS,  MINES,   AND    MINING. 

In  King's  Mountain  mine,  of  Gaston  Co.,  N.  C.,  the  gold  is, 
to  a  great  extent,  contained  in  a  quartzoze  limestone,  and 
is  associated  with  very  small  quantities  of  pyrites,  galenite, 
chalcopyrite,  but  also  with  the  very  rare  tellurides  of  lead, 
altaite,  and  with  nagyagite,  a  telluride  of  gold  and  lead.  In 
some  places  this  ore  bed  is  over  thirty  feet  in  thickness,  and 
has  been  worked  to  a  depth  of  200  feet,  but,  longitudinally, 
only  to  a  very  small  extent,  not  over  250  feet.  (Journal  of 
the  Franklin  Institute,  January,  1872.) 

In  North  Carolina,  the  gold,  though  originally  found  in 
nuggets,  is  now  generally  found  in  grains  and  in  fine  dust, 
its  average  fineness  being  825  thousandths,  and  is  associated 
with  platinum,  diamond,  zircon,  xenotime,  meiiazite,  and 
many  other  minerals.  (Genth.)  At  the  Portis  mine,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  State,  the  gold  is  generally  about  985 
thousandths  fine,  and  in  the  gravel  beds. 

Those  deposits  which  have  been  formed  from  a  decompo- 
sition of  gold-bearing  rocks,  which  has  been  carried  on 
through  ages,  are  the  most  valuable,  as  nature  has  concen- 
trated the  nuggets  or  particles  at  the  bottom  of  the  sand, 
gravel,  or  loose  material,  and,  in  some  instances,  has  given 
an  additional  power  of  gravitation  to  the  gangue  rocks  which 
held  gold,  so  that  they  have  parted  companionship  writh  frag- 
ments which  were  barren.  The  most  extensive  gravel  de- 
posits exist  in  the  South  Mountains,  on  the  head  waters  of 
the  first  and  second  Broad  River,  Muddy  Creek,  and  Silver 
Creek,  in  the  counties  of  Rutherford,  McDowell,  Burke,  Cald- 
well,  also  in  Polk  and  Cleveland,  embracing  an  area  of  over 
200  square  miles  (Genth).  Even  the  soil  and  clay,  which 
cover  these  beds  in  some  places,  are  more  or  less  auriferous, 
although  poorer  than  the  gravel  beds. 


GOLD.  75 

A  peculiarity  in  the  North  Carolina  gravel  beds  is  found 
in  that  the  attempt  to  work  the  gravel,  as  a  mass,  for  gold, 
by  crushing  it,  was  a  failure,  inasmuch  as  the  fine  or  small 
quartz  veins  were  the  gold-bearing  veins,  and  not  the  large 
quartz  veins ;  this  fact,  with  that  derived  from  that  which 
has  already  been  stated  as  to  natural  concentration,  explains 
the  cause  of  failure. 

In  Montgomery  County  there  are  gravel  deposits  in  the 
slate  formation,  some  of  which  have  proved  highly  import- 
ant, yielding  nuggets  and  crystalline  flat  pieces  with  very 
little  fine  grained  gold. 

The  average  fineness  of  California  native  gold,  as  deduced 
from  thousands  of  assays  at  the  Philadelphia  Mint,  is  88} 
parts  gold,  and  11}  parts  silver  in  100  parts. 

For  the  following  additional  remarks  we  are  indebted  to 
the  late  Win.  E.  Du  Bois,  chief  assayer  of  the  U.  S.  Mint, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Native  gold,  or  silver,  does  not  occur  absolutely  pure,  yet 
sometimes  so  near  it  that  it  would  be  called  such,  commer- 
cially. Gold  grains  have  resulted  998.  Silver  will  more 
nearly  approach  1000 :  still  there  is  something  between  it 
and  the  chemist's  refinement.  In  fact  it  is  a  pretty  high 
attainment  of  our  art  to  make  these  metals  chemically  pure, 
and  fit  for  proofs. 

We  have  found  a  wide  diversity,  and  a  vast  variety  in  the 
fineness  of  California  gold.  It  has  resulted  as  low  as  812,  and 
as  high  as  957  ;  the  general  average  is  probably  880  to  885. 

The  alloying  metal  is  silver  and  the  two  together  will,  after 
melting,  generally  show  995  parts  of  precious  metal,  the  re- 
maining 5  parts  being  the  oxide  of  iron,  which  covers  and 
permeates  every  grain.  It  is  this  which  gives  such  high  and 


76  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

deceptive  coloring  to  the  native  gold.  It  is  quite  surprising 
to  see  the  same  gold,  before  and  after  melting  ;  being  so  much 
paler  in  the  latter  case. 

There  is,  however,  before  melting,  a  larger  association  than 
that  of  base  matter ;  for  in  the  melting  there  is  a  removal  of 
2  J  to  4  per  cent,  of  the  original  weight ;  the  5  thousandths 
just  spoken  of  still  remaining  in  the  alloy  as  a  trace.  In  the 
parting  process  this  last  trace  disappears. 

In  the  earlier  days  of  California  gold  a  few  samples  were 
assayed  by  eminent  chemists  in  Paris,  and  they  actually 
asserted  a  union  of  gold  and  silver  in  atomic  proportions. 
A  larger  experience,  it  might  be  said  a  little  reflection,  would 
have  convinced  them  of  the  absurdity  of  such  an  idea.  And 
yet  that  statement  is  seen  copied  from  one  book  to  another, 
even  down  to  a  very  recent  work  on  assaying  by  a  high 
authority. 

Gold  and  silver  are  found  together  in  every  possible  grade 
of  proportion.  It  is  only  in  the  very  rare  case  of  a  natural 
crystalline  structure  that  the  proportion  can  be  supposed  to 
be  atomic,  so  that  this  affirmation  should  not  be  copied, 
although  made  even  by  so  high  an  authority  (if  we  mistake 
not)  as  Boussingault. 

The  gold  of  North  Carolina  has  to  a  large  extent  the  same 
range  of  fineness  as  that  of  California ;  but  in  an  extreme 
case  (mentioned  by  Mr.  Frederick  Eckfeldt  to  Mr.  Du  Bois) 
it  came  out  991.  Its  average  is  lower  than  that  of  Cali- 
fornia. Georgia,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  considerably  higher.  In  Nova  Scotia  there  are 
two  general  classes,  one  of  them  quite  high,  the  other  below 
our  standard. 

The  differences  in  the  gold  of  Australia  are  very  marked. 


GOLD.  77 

They  classify  their  mines  as  Northern,  Western,  and  South- 
ern. In  the  first,  the  range  has  been  found  from  654  to  962, 
with  an  average  below  900  ;  the  Western  mines  run  from 
915  to  960  ;  the  Southern,  928  to  983.  We  have  considered 
Australian  gold  to  find  an  average  at  960  ;  doubtless  from 
Southern  mines.  To  all  these  classes,  in  which  gold  pre- 
ponderates, the  new  chlorine  refining  and  parting  process, 
invented  and  perfected  by  F.  Bowyer  Miller,  Esq.,  of  the 
Melbourne  (formerly  of  the  Sydney)  Mint,  is  admirably 
adapted.  He  was  at  the  U.  S.  Mint,  Philadelphia,  in  1871, 
and  exhibited  his  process  of  working  it  [by  passing  chlorine 
through  the  melted  metal] . 

The  gold  of  Colorado  is  generally  pale ;  that  of  Montana  is 
higher  in  per  cent.,  but  of  so  varied  grades  that  the  average 
can  hardly  be  better  stated. 

The  natural  alloys  and  accompaniments  of  gold  present  a 
large  and  curious  study.  Can  any  plausible  reason  be  given 
why  silver  is  always  in  company  with  gold,  and  copper 
almost  never?  And  yet,  when  we  come  to  make  a  mixture 
artificially,  gold  takes  to  copper  more  keenly  than  silver 
does.  The  following  is  a  note  of  an  experiment  by  Mr.  J.  R. 
Eckfeldt  made  some  years  ago. 

A  prise  of  900  parts  gold  -f  100  copper ;  and  another  of 
900  silver  -f  100  copper,  were  made  upon  the  assay-beam, 
wrapped  in  lead  foil,  and  placed  in  cupels  side  by  side. 
They  were  subjected  to  a  high  heat  in  the  oven.  When 
taken  out  the  gold  button  was  found  to  retain  twenty-three 
parts  copper.  The  silver  lost  all  its  copper. 

While  speaking  of  gold  affinities  and  alloys,  two  other 
curious  facts  must  be  noticed.  One  is,  that  gold  in  its 
natural  condition  is  usually  found  in  the  motherly  embrace 


78  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

of  iron  in  some  mineralized  form,  say  oxide  or  sulphide. 
And,  yet,  an  attempt  to  unite  them  in  a  crucible  will  be  un- 
successful. They  will  not  mix,  except  in  an  imperfect, 
heterogeneous  way. 

But  the  other  more  curious  fact,  which,  like  many  others, 
warns  science  rather  to  seek  for  facts  than  to  attempt  to 
account  for  them,  is  found  in  this,  that  lead,  in  its  native 
mineral  form,  is  sure  to  contain  both  silver  and  gold,  yet, 
chiefly,  in  infinitesimal  proportions.  Spanish  pig  lead, 
which  of  all  the  commercial  leads  is  the  freest  from  silver, 
has  been  found  containing  one-third  of  an  ounce  to  the  ton ; 
and  when  that  silver  was  dissolved,  it  was  found  to  contain 
gold. 

A  very  remarkable  case  was  that  of  galena  found  in  New 
Britain,  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  where  Mr.  Eckfeldt  found  2J 
grains  of  gold,  say  ten  cents'  worth,  to  the  ton  of  lead. 

Now,  by  what  imaginable  process  of  nature  do  these 
atoms  of  silver  and  gold  find  place  in  this  base  metal,  and  in 
such  proportions  ? 

METHODS  OF  TREATING  GOLD  ALLOYS. 

In  a  foreign  periodical  we  find  the  following  statements 
which  contain  much  which  is  important  in  the  refining  of 
gold. 

In  the  Mint  of  the  United  States,  ferruginous  gold  is 
melted  with  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  and  carbonate  of  potash 
and  soda ;  tin,  antimony,  and  arsenic  are  removed  by  melt- 
ing with  borax,  soda,  and  saltpetre,  or  according  to  Waring- 
ton,  tin  and  antimony  may  be  extracted  by  melting  the  gold 
for  half  an  hour  with  one-tenth  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of 
copper  and  some  borax.  Lead  may  be  removed  by  melting 


GOLD.  79 

with  saltpetre  and  sand,  or  a  little  chloride  of  mercury 
enveloped  in  paper  is  repeatedly  thrown  into  the  mass,  fused 
with  saltpetre  and  borax,  until  a  sample  taken  shows  suffi- 
cient ductility.  0.02  per  cent,  of  lead  renders  gold  brittle. 

Pettenkofer  states  that  almost  all  extracted  gold  contains 
a  small  amount  of  platinum,  from  which  it  may  be  freed  as 
oxide  of  platinum  and  potash  by  melting  with  saltpetre. 
This  amount  of  platinum  not  only  retains  silver  in  gold,  but 
causes  a  considerable  loss  of  gold  when  melting  it  with  salt- 
petre. Whilst  finely  divided  gold  when  melted  with  salt- 
petre oxidizes  with  more  difficulty  than  platinum,  it  oxidizes 
most  readily  in  the  presence  of  platinum,  forming  slags 
containing  as  much  as  19  or  20  per  cent,  of  gold  arid  2J  or 
3|  per  cent,  of  platinum.  If  the  gold  also  contains  silver, 
the  silver  protects  the  platinum  from  oxidation,  and  the 
platinum  then  enters  the  argentiferous  gold.  All  the  plati- 
num will  enter  the  slags  if  the  gold  contains  not  more  than 
0.5  per  cent,  of  silver,  and  not  more  than  0.3  per  cent,  of 
platinum.  Besides  the  potash  of  the  saltpetre,  the  slags  con- 
tain all  the  metals  which  were  attacked  at  the  previous  treat- 
ment with  sulphuric  acid,  and  transformed  into  insoluble 
salts  (sulphate  of  lead,  sulphide  of  copper,  basic  sulphate  of 
iron) ;  some  components  of  the  crucible  (silica,  alumina,  lime) 
also  enter  the  slags,  and  metallic  oxides  formed  by  the  re- 
action of  the  saltpetre  upon  the  metals  (oxides  of  gold,  plati- 
num, palladium,  osmium).  Some  fine  gold  and  some  silver 
grains  are  also  mechanically  included,  owing  to  the  great 
viscosity  of  the  slags. 

Experience  shows  the  best  admixture  for  smelting  to  be 
16  parts  of  gold  with  1  part  of  saltpetre,  when  the  resulting 
slag  will  weigh  about  as  much  as  the  saltpetre  employed. 


80  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  average  loss  of  gold  by  the  slag  is  1  per  cent,  when  using 
saltpetre  in  that  proportion ;  an  addition  of  borax  renders  the 
slag  more  liquid. 

The  whole  of  the  small  amount  of  platinum  in  the  gold 
usually  enters  the  slag. 

The  amount  of  gold  grains  in  the  slag  depends  chiefly  on 
the  quantity  of  gold  smelted.  If  larger  quantities  of  gold 
are  melted  in  one  charge,  the  relative  and  absolute  amount 
of  gold  in  the  slag  will  always  be  much  larger  than  when 
melting  the  same  quantity  in  different  operations ;  it  is  best 
to  melt  exactly  10  Ibs.  in  one  operation,  as  when  employing 
crucibles  of  equal  size  the  trough  slag  stands  higher  in  the 
crucible  than  when  melting  smaller  quantities.  The  higher 
the  slag  stands  in  the  crucible  the  more  the  sinking  of  the 
gold  grains  is  impeded.  Sometimes  a  skin,  consisting  of  fine 
grains  of  metallic  gold,  is  formed  on  the  lower  side  of  the 
slag,  caused  by  the  sinking  of  gold  grains  after  the  tempera- 
ture has  decreased  below  the  melting  point  of  gold,  whilst  the 
slag  is  kept  liquid ;  the  gold  grains  cannot  then  unite  either 
with  each  other  or  with  the  gold  below.  When  melting  small 
quantities  of  gold,  the  slag  formed  is  also  proportionally 
thinner,  retaining  for  that  reason  fewer  grains  of  gold.  The 
crucible  is  liable  to  corrosion  by  the  potash  present  when  try- 
ing to  render  larger  quantities  of  slag  more  fluid  by  a  con- 
tinued firing. 

The  reverse  takes  place  with  any  silver  in  the  slag.  The 
particles  of  silver  still  contained  in  the  gold  remain  sus- 
pended in  the  slag  together  with  some  gold,  owing  to  the 
light  specific  gravity  and  the  fine  distribution  of  silver,  and 
they  sink  more  slowly  the  thinner  the  slag  is.  Therefore  one 
and  the  same  quality  of  gold  alloy  will  yield  gold  of  greater 


GOLD.  81 

fineness  (by  0.001  or  0.002)  when  melted  in  larger  quantities 
than  when  melted  in  smaller  lots. 

To  extract  gold  and  platinum  from  the  slag,  Pettenkofer 
recommends  that  they  should  be  mixed  with  water  to  a  thin 
paste,  and  then  added  to  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  litharge, 
one  part  argol,  four  parts  soda,  and  two  parts  pulverized 
glass,  to  every  eight  parts  of  dry  slag.  "  The  mass  is 
thoroughly  mixed  and  then  dried  in  an  iron  or  copper  pan, 
and  melted  in  a  crucible  previously  heated  red-hot.  The 
resulting  raw  lead  is  cupelled,  yielding  brightened  silver, 
which  is  granulated  and  treated  with  aqua  regia  in  a  glass 
cucurbit.*  After  solution,  heat  is  continued  to  expel  the 
nitric  acid ;  chlorides  of  silver  and  lead  are  filtered  off,  and 
the  gold  is  precipitated  from  the  liquid  by  iron  vitriol ;  it  is 
then  washed,  dried,  and  fused  with  saltpetre  in  a  Hessian 
crucible.  The  remaining  liquid  contains  the  platinum,  and 
is  warmed  with  iron,  thus  precipitating  various  metals ;  these 
are  boiled  with  nitric  acid,  leaving  platinum  as  a  residue. 
This  platinum  is  dissolved  in  aqua  regia,  and  extracted  by 
ammonia,  etc." 

This  method  of  extracting  gold  and  platinum,  partly  in  the 
dry  way,  is  preferable  to  employing  the  wet  way  exclusively. 

When  re-melting  gold  containing  osm-iridium,  the  osm- 
iridium  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  owing  to  the  great  specific 
gravity  ;  therefore  California!!  gold,  containing  about  0.1  per 
cent,  of  osm-iridum,  is  melted,  at  the  mints  in  Philadelphia 
and  New  York,  with  two  or  three  parts  of  silver,  thus  lessen- 
ing its  specific  gravity  ;  the  specific  gravity  of  the  resulting 
gold  alloy  is  from  twelve  to  thirteen,  whilst  that  of  osm- 

*  [A  flask,  sometimes  shallow,  and  with  a  wide  mouth,  or  neck.     It 
must  be  capable  of  bearing  heat.] 
6 


82  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

iridium  is  nineteen.  On  stirring  the  fused  mass  for  some 
time,  the  osm-iridium  will  settle  to  the  bottom ;  the  contents 
of  the  crucible  (8  or  10  Ibs.)  are  ladled  out  till  within  one 
inch  from  the  bottom,  and  granulated.  The  remaining 
metal,  rich  in  osm-iridium,  is  repeatedly  melted  with  silver, 
thus  concentrating  the  osm-iridium  more  and  more ;  60  Ibs. 
of  silver  are  added  at  each  of  the  last  four  or  five  meltings ; 
after  stirring,  the  mass  is  allowed  to  settle  for  some  minutes 
and  ladled  out,  leaving  10  Ibs.  of  metal  in  the  crucible,  from 
which  the  silver  is  extracted  by  sulphuric  acid,  whilst  the 
separated  gold  is  washed  out,  leaving  the  osm-iridium.  As 
gold  containing  osm-iridium  entails  more  working  expenses, 
it  is  sold  at  a  cheaper  price. 

Gold  containing  osm-iridium  from  Bogoslowk  is  melted 
at  the  mint  in  St.  Petersburg,  in  a  large  plumbago  crucible ; 
the  gold  is  carefully  ladled  out  to  within  one  or  one  and  a 
half  inches  of  the  bottom,  and  the  remainder  contains  the 
osm-iridium,  amounting  to  about  5  Ibs.  from  several  meltings. 
These  5  Ibs.  are  then  melted  in  a  small  plumbago  crucible 
with  a  narrow  bottom,  and  after  cooling,  the  lower  part  of  the 
metal  regulus,  consisting  of  osm-iridium  with  a  little  gold 
sticking  to  it,  is  cut  off ;  this  gold  is  dissolved  in  aqua  regia, 
which  does  not  attack  osm-iridium. 

The  dross  resulting  from  the  treatment  of  Californian  and 
Australian  gold,  containing  gold,  silver,  and  osm-iridium,  is 
melted  with  a  reducing  and  purifying  flux  containing  lith- 
arge, thus  producing  raw  lead,  which  is  cupelled,  yielding  an 
alloy  from  which  the  silver  is  extracted  ;  an  alloy  remaining 
of  gold  and  osm-iridium. 

According  to  d'Hennin,  the  separation  is  best  effected  by 
smelting  12.5  parts  of  dross  with  15  parts  of  black  flux,  14 


GOLD.  83 

parts  of  chalk,  2.5  or  3  parts  of  arseniate  of  soda,  20  parts  of 
borax  and  carbon,  and  some  litharge  and  argol.  Auriferous 
and  argentiferous  lead  then  result,  and  on  the  top  a  mass, 
consisting  of  arsenic,  iron,  and  osm-iridium,  which  can  be 
easily  separated  from  the  lead  and  cupelled. 

Palladium  may  be  extracted  from  argentiferous  gold  by 
means  of  nitric  acid. 

USE  OF  CAST  IRON  IN  " PARTING"  GOLD. 

The  parting  of  gold  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid  has  bean 
greatly  developed  by  the  employment  of  platinum  vessels, 
though  on  account  of  their  great  expense  they  are  at  present 
but  little  used,  and  cast-iron  vessels  are  almost  universally 
employed.  Platinum  vessels  resist  perfectly  the  reaction  of 
hot  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  but  being  very  expensive  to 
make  and  to  repair,  and  being  liable  to  considerable  waste 
from  the  friction  of  the  granulated  metal  on  their  sides,  they 
require  to  be  treated  most  carefully.  At  the  moment  when 
the  finely-divided  gold,  in  contact  with  the  platinum,  is  ex- 
posed to  the  influence  of  the  boiling  acid,  the  gold  cakes  and 
sticks  so  fast  to  the  platinum  that  it  must  be  dissolved  with 
dilute  aqua  regia,  if  slight  blows  on  the  outside  of  the  vessel 
are  not  effective.  This  operation  requires  much  dexterity. 
Above  all,  platinum  must  not  be  exposed  to  contact  with 
lead  and  tin,  as  they  readily  alloy  with  it  at  the  temperature 
of  boiling  sulphuric  acid.  The  platinum  vessels  are  usually 
placed  in  iron  jackets  or  frames. 

At  the  mint  in  Munich,  platinum  vessels  about  9f  inches 
high,  furnished  with  a  platinum  head  5  inches  high,  and  9£ 
inches  in  diameter,  were  formerly  used ;  these  vessels  were 
placed  in  an  iron  frame ;  at  present  iron  vessels  are  used. 


84  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Eighty-two  and  a  half  Ibs.  of  auriferous  silver,  containing 
about  15 J  per  cent,  of  gold,  are  treated  in  three  platinum 
vessels,  each  containing  26  J  Ibs.,  with  173  Ibs.  of  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  The  vessels  are  heated  first  with  wood 
and  afterwards  with  turf.  Two  and  a  half  times  as  much 
sulphuric  acid  is  employed  as  there  are  silver  and  copper  in 
the  alloy.  The  heads  of  the  vessels  communicate  with  a 
leaden  tube,  partially  filled  with  water,  in  which  any  escap- 
ing sulphuric  acid  condenses.  The  surplus  sulphurous  acid 
is  conducted  into  the  chimney  by  means  of  a  leaden  tube. 

The  solution  is  finished  in  three  hours,  when  some  dilute 
sulphuric  acid  of  55°  B.  is  added  to  precipitate  the  suspended 
particles  of  gold ;  after  slightly  cooling  in  a  tilting  apparatus, 
the  greater  part  of  the  sulphate  of  silver  is  poured  into  a 
platinum  vessel,  leaving  the  gold  at  the  bottom. 

If  the  solution  is  not  quite  clear  it  is  reheated  with  an 
addition  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid  and  finally  poured  into  the 
leaden  precipitation  pan,  which  is  filled  to  one-third  with 
water.  The  last  auriferous  muddy  liquid  is  put  into  a 
smaller  lead  pan  and  decomposed  by  means  of  copper ;  the 
resulting  silver,  alloyed  with  gold,  is  then  smelted  and  added 
to  the  next  extraction.  The  gold  remaining  in  the  solution 
vessel  is  boiled  tree  or  four  times  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
the  acid  of  the  last  boiling  is  used  for  dissolving  auriferous 
silver.  The  gold  is  washed,  dried,  and  melted  without  any 
addition ;  the  washing  water  is  filtered  into  the  precipitation 
pan.  The  lixivium  of  silver  vitriol  is  concentrated  to  about 
25°  or  27°  B.  and  decomposed  by  copper,  100  parts  of  silver 
requiring  thirty  parts  of  copper-plate.  The  precipitated  silver 
is  washed,  dried,  and  melted  in  a  Hessian  crucible  standing 
within  a  plumbago  crucible ;  some  saltpetre  is  added  to  each 


GOLD.  85 

spoonful  of  charged  precipitated  silver.  The  resulting  silver 
has  usually  a  fineness  of  995.5.  The  resulting  lixivium  of 
copper  vitriol  is  concentrated  to  32°  or  34°  B.  and  allowed 
to  crystallize  the  remaining  mother  liquor  is  boiled  down  to 
66°  B.  and  recrystallized,  and  the  second  mother  liquor  is 
boiled  down  to  56°  B.  in  a  leaden  pan,  and  to  66°  B.  in  a 
platinum  pan,  when  it  is  suitable  for  dissolving  auriferous 
silver. 

At  St.  Petersburg  platinum  vessels  were  formerly  used ; 
four  parts  of  sulphuric  acid  were  added  to  every  three  parts 
of  silver  contained  in  the  alloy.  One  extraction  was  per- 
formed in  from  six  to  ten  hours.  The  resulting  gold  was 
boiled  once  more  with  sulphuric  acid,  and  contained  when 
smelted  99.666  per  cent,  of  gold,  and  the  silver  was  of  a 
fineness  of  99.15.  Cast-iron  vessels  are  now  used  there. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AND  PROVING  GOLD  ORES. 

Simple  as  the  assertion  may  seem  to  one  possessed  of  a 
merely  theoretic  knowledge,  yet  one  of  the  most  important 
and  useful  accomplishments  for  gold  exploitation,  is  "  an  eye 
for  color."  There  is  a  peculiar  color  which  native  gold  pos- 
sesses which  is  readily  recognized,  although  that  gold  may  be 
alloyed  with  silver  or  copper,  and  its  color  will  in  an  instant 
distinguish  it  in  the  eye  of  the  expert  from  any  condition  of 
pyrites,  whether  iron  or  copper  pyrites.  This  remark  relates 
strictly  to  native  metal,  especially  as  found  in  finely  commi- 
nuted particles.  Nothing  but  familiarity  with  the  metal  will 
lead  to  the  possession  of  an  eye  for  color  and  the  power  of  an 
instant  recognition  of  the  metal. 

The  simplest  instrument  for  the  discovery  of  gold  in  fine 
dissemination  through  sand  or  dirt  is  a  common  iron  pan  or 


86  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

dish.  Some  dirt  is  thrown  in  and  water  poured  on  the  whole 
mass,  and  by  adroit  shaking  and  by  turning  the  pan  over 
slightly  to  one  side  until  the  finer  particles  are  left  above  the 
edge  of  the  water,  the  small  particles  of  gold  are  left  because 
of  their  gravity  almost  on  the  extreme  edge  of  the  dirt,  and 
will  be  instantly  recognized  by  an  "  eye  for  color."  It  is  not 
only  the  "  color,"  but  quickness  to  discover  the  actual  pres- 
ence of  the  particle,  which  is  included  in  the  art  of  using  the 
pan,  and  we  have  known  experts  recover  considerable  gold 
from  pan  washings  which  had  been  by  others  supposed  to  be 
exhausted.  However,  a  certain  adroitness  is  essential  in 
handling  the  pan,  by  which  some  will  expose  every  particle  of 
a  handful  of  "  pay  dirt"  in  a  few  minutes  and  will  not  leave 
two  dollars  to  the  ton.  This,  where  water  can  be  had,  is  the 
most  efficient  instrument  a  man  can  travel  with  in  his  gold- 
seeking  journeys. 

Where  four  or  five  join  to  work  a  place  that  is  supposed  to 
pay,  the  cradle  or  rocker  is  more  rapid,  even  if  the  pan  must 

be    used    afterward.      There   are 
Fig.  4. 

several  ways  of  putting  a  cradle 
together,  but  the  principle  de- 
pends upon  separation  of  the 
larger  barren  pieces  with  greater 
ease  and  rapidity.  Hence  the 
usual  form  is  that  of  a  long 
trough  as  represented  in  Fig.  4, 
wherein  A  is  the  handle  for  rock- 
ing the  cradle,  D  is  the  upper 
slatting  for  receiving  the  coarse 

dirt  and  catching  larger  stones  and  material  to  be  thrown  out 
by  hand,  B  B  the  false  bottom  which  should  be  made  mov- 


GOLD.  87 

able  and  raised  about  an  inch  or  two  above  the  true  bottom, 
and  which  consists  of  slats  placed  close  to  one  another  and 
nailed  to  a  strong  frame  so  as  to  be  removed  and  replaced 
easily.  C  C  are  the  rockers.  The  water  and  dirt  thrown  in 
at  D  are  rocked  through  to  B  B,  excepting  the  larger  pebbles, 
etc.,  and  the  finer  pebbles  and  dirt  pass  over  the  riffle-bars 
D  D  out  at  E  E.  The  clean  sand  with  gold  will  be  found  in 
the  bottom  and  must  be  removed  as  soon  as  the  sand  touches 
the  bottom  of  the  "  riffle-bars,"  else  thin  particles  of  gold  will 
be  lost. 

But  in  spite  of  all  care  much  gold  escapes  under  this  pro- 
cess and  therefore  the  sluice  system  of  washing  dirt  with 
mercury  was  introduced.  This  depends  upon  the  fact  that 
mercury  (quicksilver)  readily  amalgamates  with  gold,  even  in 
the  smallest  particles.  So  a  series  of  wooden  troughs,  all  on 
an  inclined  plane,  are  made  perfectly  tight  and  occasionally 
fitted  with  cross-bars  made  tight  enough  to  hold  quicksilver. 
The  descending  material  holding  gold  is  somewhat  checked 
at  these  little  reservoirs  of  quicksilver,  and  the  gravity  of  the 
gold  causes  it  to  come  in  contact  with  the  metal,  with  which 
it  is  immediately  caught  and  the  rest  of  the  material  passes 
on.  Success  depends  upon  the  length  of  the  line  of  troughs, 
the  proper  inclination,  the  sufficient  supply  of  water,  and 
sufficient  quicksilver. 

But  sometimes  the  gold  is  so  combined  with  other  sub- 
stances, especially  sulphur,  also  arsenic  and  tellurium,  that 
the  amalgamation  is  found  difficult.  For  this  there  has  been 
found  a  remedy  in  mixing  the  quicksilver  with  a  small  per 
cent,  of  sodium.  Wurtz,  of  New  York,  who  claims,  with 
Crookes,  of  London,  this  discovery,  uses  about  4  per  cent,  of 
sodium  which  combines  with  quicksilver  to  form  a  hard 


88  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

amalgam.  Crookes  uses  zinc  and  tin  as  in  the  following 
proportions :  77  quicksilver  to  3  of  sodium  and  20  of  zinc, 
and  77  quicksilver,  3  of  sodium,  10  of  zinc,  and  10  of  tin. 
Of  this  hard  amalgam  only  one  part  to  100  of  quicksilver,  or 
even  less,  is  quite  sufficient.  The  writer  has  kept  it  in  bottles 
for  months,  but  the  tendency,  if  exposed  to  the  air,  is  par- 
tially to  decompose,  but  even  after  partial  decomposition  its 
efficiency  is  considerable. 

When  the  quicksilver  has  been  sufficiently  loaded  with 
gold,  it  is  removed,  squeezed,  and  put  into  a  flanged  iron 
crucible,  covered  with  an  iron  cap  with  an  iron  tube  leading 
from  it,  and,  after  thoroughly  tightening,  the  end  of  the  pipe 
is  submerged  in  water  and  fire  applied  to  the  retort,  or  cru- 
cible. Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  heat  the  crucible,  or 
retort,  beyond  the  heat  sufficient  to  volatize  the  quicksilver, 
which  is  then  caught  in  the  water  for  use  again.  The  gold  is 
left  in  a  spongy  mass.  In  some  places  a  canvas  tube  is  at- 
tached to  the  end  of  the  tube  and  passes  under  the  water,  with 
a  view  to  prevent  the  water  from  running  back  into  the  retort 
in  case  a  vacuum  is  formed,  but  we  have  found  no  such  re- 
sults where  ordinary  care  has  been  taken. 

But  the  largest  quantities  of  gold  are  not  free,  but  occur  in 
the  rock  and  quartz,  and  this  requires  the  use  of  machinery 
to  crush  the  rock,  which  work  is  done  by  rollers,  stamps,  and 
mills. 

POORER  ORES  CONTAINING  GOLD. 

But  beside  those  forms  in  which  gold  is  found,  native  or 
as  placer  gold,  and  of  which  we  have  spoken,  there  are  other 
and  poorer  ores  in  which  the  gold  does  not  appear  to  the  eye 
as  in  the  ores  which  we  have  described. 

These  ores  are  such  as  bear  a  large  proportion  of  silver, 


GOLD.  89 

tellurium,  lead,  iron,  and  copper  in  the  form  of  sulphides, 
and  they  appear  also  with  other  associations.  The  miner- 
alogist cannot  detect  the  gold  in  these  ores  without  experi- 
ments in  proving  them,  and  yet  some  of  them  are  very  im- 
portant ores.  With  care  a  few  of  them  may  be  analyzed 
with  the  blowpipe  and  the  gold  detected,  but  even  then  the 
analyst  must  finally  resort  to  the  use  of  nitric  acid  to  separate 
the  silver,  or  to  the  use,  on  the  charcoal  base,  of  some  bone 
dust  to  absorb  the  lead  which  may  be  combined  with  the 
gold.  The  better  way  is  to  use  the  crucible  and  fuse  the 
supposed  ore  with  lead  or  litharge,  or  even  with  plumbic  sul- 
phide (galena).  But  it  is  necessary,  in  some  cases,  to  concen- 
trate the  ore  before  you  are  ready  to  combine  it  with  the  lead, 
especially  if  it  be  a  lean  ore,  and  this  may  be  done  in  several 
ways.  If  it  be  an  iron,  or  pyritic  ore,  it  is  well  to  break  it 
down  into  smaller  particles  (not  powder),  and  roast  it  in  a  low 
red  heat  to  drive  off  some  of  the  sulphur.  If  the  ore  has 
quartz  in  it  which  cannot  be  separated,  it  may  be  mixed  with 
about  a  quantity  of  powdered  lime  equal  to  the  bulk  of 
quartz  and  heated,  after  the  slow  roasting.  The  lime  and 
quartz,  forming  a  slag,  allow  the  metallic  portion  to  settle 
and  concentrate,  and  when  cooled,  the  metal  and  slag  can  be 
separated,  or  more  ore  and  lime  added  and  treated  as  before 
until  the  gold  in  the  ore  is  still  further  concentrated  and 
fitted  for  more  efficient  treatment  with  lead  as  above  stated. 
The  lead  then  takes  up  the  gold  and  subsides  with  it  under 
a  layer  of  ferric  sulphide. 

Where  the  ore  appears  to  be  chiefly  iron  pyrites  (FeS2) 
and  quartz,  the  crushed  ore  with  lime,  to  flux  the  quartz,  is 
fused  in  a  crucible,  when  the  pyrites  loses  half  its  sulphur 
(FeS),  fuses,  and  sinks  below  the  slag,  carrying  with  it  all 


90  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  gold.  If  this  product  be  roasted  so  as  to  convert  the  iron 
into  an  oxide,  and  be  then  again  fused  with  a  fresh  portion  of 
the  ore,  the  oxide  of  iron  will  then  flux  the  quartz  while  the 
fresh  portion  of  the  sulphide  of  iron  will  carry  down  the 
whole  of  the  gold  contained  in  both  quantities  of  ore,  and 
this  operation  may  be  repeated,  until  the  sulphide  of  iron  is 
rich  in  gold,  and  it  is  then  ready  to  be  fused  with  a  certain 
quantity  of  lead.  This  is  called  the  Hungarian  process. 

The  gold  lead  is  now  ready  to  be  cupelled,  a  work  which 
leaves  only  gold,  if  only  gold  without  any  silver  is  present. 
But  if  silver  is  also  in  the  ore,  then  the  mass,  or  "button," 
must  be  removed — flattened,  or  chipped,  so  as  to  be  more 
easily  acted  upon — placed  in  a  glass  vessel  and  treated  to 
pure  nitric  acid  which  will  dissolve  the  silver  (and  copper  if 
there  be  any),  and  leave  behind  a  dark  sediment  which,  if 
filtered  off,  washed  and  dried,  may  be  shown  to  be  metallic 
gold  in  fine  powder.  This  is  readily  done  by  either  mashing 
the  powder  upon  a  hard  smooth  surface  by  means  of  another 
hard  surface  as  that  of  a  piece  of  agate,  or  even  the  blade  01 
a  pen-knife ;  or  the  powder  may  be  placed  upon  a  charcoal 
block  with  a  little  borax  and  the  blowpipe  flame  turned 
upon  it,  when  it  will  show  its  color  as  the  particles  unite  in 
melting. 

In  the  above  we  have  to  some  degree  entered  upon  the 
work  of  the  metallurgy  of  gold,  because  the  practical  miner- 
alogist very  frequently  needs  to  test  his  ore  to  the  extent  we 
have  illustrated,  and  because  with  only  the  simple  apparatus 
suggested  he  may  satisfy  himself  sufficiently  as  to  the  value 
of  the  ore  he  has  discovered  or  has  received  from  others,  with- 
out entering  any  further  upon  the  more  intricate  work  of  the 
metallurgy  of  gold. 


GOLD.  91 

There  are  some  precautions,  however,  which  experience  has 
taught  as  well  as  the  science  itself,  in  the  treatment  of  gold. 
It  is  necessary  that  the  nitric  acid  used  should  be  colorless,  or 
in  other  words,  chemically  pure.  For  as  gold  is  not  soluble 
in  pure  nitric  acid,  but  always  in  the  presence  of  free 
chlorine,  any  admixture  of  the  latter  element  in  the  nitric 
acid  causes  loss  of  gold.  If,  however,  we  desire  to  dissolve 
the  gold  we  use  one-fourth  muriatic  acid  (HC1)  which  con- 
taining chlorine  (Cl)  combined  with  hydrogen,  furnishes  the 
element  for  the  purposes  in  the  mtro-muriatic  combination, 
which  therefore  in  its  best  condition  is  muriatic  acid  three 
parts,  nitric  acid  one  part,  or  one-fourth  of  the  volume  nitric 
acid. 

If  there  is  reason  for  suspicion  that  the  nitric  acid  contains 
any  chlorine,  a  drop  of  silver  nitrate  will  by  its  milky-white 
precipitate  show  its  condition. 

But  another  caution  must  be  heeded  in  dissolving  an  alloy 
of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  for  instance :  The  gold  in  the 
mass  must  not  bear  too  large  a  proportion,  for  if  it  predomi- 
nates, the  action  of  the  nitric  acid  is  rendered  inefficient,  and 
hence  generally  silver  is  added  so  as  to  be  about  three  times 
that  of  the  gold,  and  this  act  of  adding  is  called  quartation. 
If,  however,  the  proportion  of  gold  is  known  to  be  very  small 
no  further  trouble  is  taken.  All  silver  coin  contains  gold, 
and  old  English  silver  plate  contained  so  much  gold  that  it 
paid  well  to  extract  the  gold.  With  a  fine  pair  of  scales  even 
the  gold  in  a  ten-cent  coin  may  be  detected  and  weighed. 

Another  precaution  should  be  taken  in  using  crucibles  in 
melting  gold  and  some  other  metals.  The  fine  French  cruci- 
bles should  always  be  used  in  preference  to  even  the  small 
Hessian,  of  both  of  which  wre  have  spoken  in  the  introductory 


92  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

remarks  to  this  part  of  our  work.  But  even  the  former  occa- 
sion much  trouble  in  melting  small  quantities  of  gold,  be- 
cause of  the  adherence  of  the  gold  to  the  sides  of  the  crucible. 
This  may  be  prevented  by  previously  dipping  the  crucible 
into  a  strong  solution  of  borax  in  water  and  drying  the  cruci- 
ble before  use. 

In  using  nitric  acid  upon  a  mass  of  metal  containing  gold, 
if  the  mass  contains  much  silver,  the  dissolving  process  should 
be  begun  without  heat  and  the  heat  increased  slowly,  else 
there  may  be  a  sudden  commotion  which  may  cause  either 
breakage,  or  loss,  by  overflow,  since  great  heat  is  sometimes 
created  by  the  rapid  combination  of  metal  and  acid. 

In  making  assays  where  the  mass  is  to  be  dissolved  in  an 
acid,  especially  if  there  be  a  large  quantity,  it  is  well  to  pour 
the  melted  mass  into  a  vessel  containing  water;  it  thus 
becomes  granulated  and  is  more  readily  acted  upon  by  the 
acid. 

SILVER. 

SILVER.  OCCURRENT  FORM  or  APPEARANCE  IN  NATURE. 
NATIVE,  massive  and  isometric,  or  monometric — that  is,  crys- 
tallized in  octahedrons,  cubes  and  forms  modified  or  altered 
from  these  forms— sometimes  compressed,  or  in  small  crystals 
joined  together  in  linear  or  lateral  directions,  sometimes  dis- 
torted. Coarse  or  fine  thread-like,  arborescent — in  thin  and 
irregularly  formed  plates,  in  very  fine  fissures — presenting, 
on  edge,  the  appearance  of  minute  lines  in  very  flint-like  or 
jasper-like  rock. 

HARDNESS  =  2.5  to  3,  being  harder  than  gold  but  softer 
than  copper. 

GRAVITY  =  10.1  to  11.1.     When  pure,  10.5. 


SILVER.  93 

COLOR,  that  of  ordinary  silver  coin,  except  where  much 
tarnished  by  contact  with  sulphur  in  vapor  or  solution,  or 
when  mixed  with  some  other  metal,  as  gold  or  copper.  With 
sulphur,  dirty  brown  or  black,  with  gold,  very  light  to  straw 
yellow,  or  pale  brass  yellow ;  with  copper,  slight  tinge  of  cop- 
per red,  but  may  contain  some  copper  without  any  apparent 
change ;  when  it  does  change  color,  it  is  more  properly  cop- 
per with  silver. 

DUCTILITY.  Very  malleable  and  ductile,  may  be  ham- 
inered  into  leaves  0.00001  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  and  one 
grain  of  silver  may  be  drawn  out  into  a  wire  400  feet  long. 
It  admits  of  being  welded.  (Bristow.) 

COMPOSITION.  Native  silver  occurs  in  a  state  nearer  abso- 
lute purity  than  is  the  case  with  native  gold,  but,  neverthe- 
less, it  is,  perhaps,  never  found  absolutely  pure.  (See  re- 
marks under  gold.)  It  is  usually  alloyed  with  gold  and 
copper.  At  Kongsberg,  Norway,  a  yellow  alloy  is  found 
which  contains  silver,  with  more  than  one-fifth  of  its  weight 
of  gold.  An  amalgam  of  silver  with  mercury  is  found  in 
large  quantity  in  the  silver  mines  of  Coquimbo,  Chili. 
{Bloxam.)  More  rarely  it  has  been  found  with  platinum, 
antimony,  bismuth,  and  traces  of  arsenic.  (Dana.)  The 
splendid  crystals  of  native  silver  found  at  Kongsberg,  Nor- 
way, are  supposed  to  owe  their  beauty,  in  some  measure,  to 
the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of  mercury.  (Scemann.)  It 
sometimes  contains  as  much  as  3  per  cent,  of  antimony,  arse- 
nic, and  iron,  and  is  sometimes  associated  with  grey  copper 
ores.  (Authorities  in  Crooks  and  Rohrig.) 

LOCALITIES,  GEOLOGY,  and  ASSOCIATIONS. 

It  occurs  in  masses  and  in  veins  traversing  gneiss,  schist, 
porphyry,  and  other  rocks. 


94  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Kongsberg  silver  mine,  Norway,  43  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Christiania,  which  was  discovered  in  1623,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant in  the  kingdom,  and,  though  nearly  abandoned  in  1805, 
was  again  worked  in  1816,  and  is  flourishing  since  1830. 
The  region  immediately  around  this  mine  is  gneiss  and  mica- 
schist,  and  between  the  Cambrian  on  the  west  and  lower 
Silurian  on  the  east.  (Dumont.) 

From  this  mine  several  very  large  masses  of  silver  have 
been  taken ;  one  weighing  more  than  5  cwt.,  and  more  re- 
cently (1868)  two,  one  weighing  238  and  the  other  436 
pounds.  One  specimen  from  southern  Peru,  mines  of 
Huantaya,  weighed  over  8  cwt.  But  all  these  are  surpassed 
by  one  "  mass  discovered  in  Sonora,  which  Wilson  states 
weighed  2700  pounds  and  was  the  subject  of  a  suit  brought 
on  behalf  of  the  king,  who  thought  to  recover  it  on  the  plea 
that  it  was  a  curiosity  and  belonged  to  the  crown."  (Lam- 
born,  Metallur.  Silver,  p.  52.) 

In  the  United  States,  in  Michigan,  Lake  Superior,  in  1873, 
in  masses  of  several  pounds  weight,  perfectly  free  from  all 
other  metals ;  also  with  the  copper  of  Lake  Superior  copper 
mines ;  also  with  silver  sulphides  on  the  northern  shore  at 
Silver  Inlet,  and  at  the  latter  place  with  galena  most  inti- 
mately mixed  in  one  mass  at  the  Chicago  Exposition,  1873, 
and  weighing,  perhaps,  forty  pounds.  Near  Ontanagon  in 
films  in  sandstone  ;  Dana  ("  Mineralogy")  says  that  it  has  been 
observed  at  a  mine  a  mile  south  of  Sing  Sing  Prison  ;  at  the 
Bridgewater  copper  mines,  New  Jersey ;  in  interesting  speci- 
mens at  King's  mine,  Davidson  Co.,  North  Carolina ;  rarely 
in  filaments  with  barytes  at  Cheshire,  Conn.  In  Idaho,  at 
the  "  Poor  Man's  lode,"  large  masses  of  native  silver  have 
been  obtained  ;  rarely  in  the  Comstock  lode  and  mostly  in 


SILVER.  95 

filaments,  and  rarely  in  the  Ophir  mines;  in  California, 
sparingly  in  Silver  Mountain  district,  Alpine  Co.;  in  the 
Maris  vein,  in  Los  Angeles  Co. 

Native  silver  generally  occurs  in  veins  of  calcareous  spar, 
or  quartz,  traversing  gneiss,  slate,  and  others  of  the  older 
rocks.  (Bristow.)  It  may  also  be  invisibly  disseminated 
through  native  copper. 

Many  have  been  deceived  by  a  mineral  called  arsenical  iron 
or  mispickel,  which  has  a  silvery  appearance  and  is  found  in 
quartz  and  other  mineral  associations.  Near  Middletown, 
Conn.,  some  money  was  wasted  several  years  ago  upon  a  place 
where  it  occurred  and  it  has  caused  much  deception  else- 
where. This  ore,  mispickel,  may  be  distinguished  from 
native  silver  by  its  brittleness  and  the  arsenical  fumes  it  gives 
off  under  the  blowpipe,  when  it  turns  black  and  is  attractable 
by  the  magnet,  showing  its  composition  as  iron.  The  scent 
of  the  fumes  of  arsenic  is  somewhat  like  that  of  onions. 

The  principal  ores  of  silver  do  not  resemble  silver,  but  con- 
tain in  varying  quantities  lead  with  other  associations,  but  in 
smaller  quantity  than  that  of  the  lead.  Almost  all  galena 
(lead  sulphide)  contains  silver,  sometimes  in  very  small  quan- 
tities. Some  of  the  lead  ores  in  southern  Indiana,  Rosa  Clare 
mines,  contain  scarcely  a  trace  of  silver,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  some  near  Lexington,  Ky.  Generally  speaking,  the 
lead  ores  which  present  a  grained  or  rough  appearance  con- 
tain silver,  while  those  which  have  shining  surfaces  contain 
less,  but  this  is  not  always  true.  The  separation  of  silver 
from  galena  will  be  spoken  of  under  Lead. 

Copper  ores  contain,  sometimes,  much  silver,  and  the  sepa- 
ration of  silver  from  copper  is  described  under  copper. 

Several  minerals  rich  in  silver  may  be  found,  which  while 


96  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

they  indicate  silver,  are  not  usually  considered  true  ores  in 
this  country.  Of  these  the  following  are  worthy  of  mention, 
as  indicating  the  neighborhood  of  true  ores  : — 

ANTIMONIAL  SILVER,  or  DYSCRACITE  ;  foreign  specimens 
contain  about  75  to  80  per  cent,  silver,  and  20  to  25  anti- 
mony. Hardness,  3.5  to  4.  Gravity,  9.4  to  9.8.  Color  and 
streak  silver-white,  sometimes  tarnished.  Opaque. 

Before  the  blowpipe  fuses  on  charcoal,  coating  the  edges 
of  the  charcoal  around  the  assay  with  antimonial  white  oxide 
and  finally  giving  a  globule  of  silver.  The  bead  is  soluble  in 
nitric  acid  leaving  oxide  of  antimony. 

BISMUTH  SILVER  also  occurs  in  foreign  localities  with  86 
per  cent,  silver  and  14  percent,  bismuth.  It  is  soft,  silver- 
white,  tarnishes  readily,  and  easily  shows  silver  under  the 
blowpipe. 

FREIESLEBENITE  is  the  mineralogical  name  given  to  a  light 
steel  gray,  or  inclining  to  silver-white,  mineral.  H.  2.  to  2.5, 
gravity  6  to  6.4,  yields  readily  to  the  knife  and  rather  brittle. 
Streak  same  as  color.  Composition,  when  pure,  sulphur 
18.6,  Sb  25.9,  lead  31.2,  silver  24.3. 

Before  the  blowpipe  in  an  open  tube  it  yields  both  sulphur- 
ous and  antimonial  fumes,  the  latter  condensing  upon  the 
sides  as  a  white  sublimate.  On  charcoal  fuses  easily,  giving, 
outside,  white  of  the  antimonious  acid,  and  nearer,  the  yellow 
oxide  of  lead.  After  a  time  the  silver  globule  appears. 

STEPHANITE  is  an  ore,  and  found  and  worked  in  Nevada, 
Idaho,  and  elsewhere.  Found  massive  and  disseminated. 
H.  2.  to  2.5  ;  gravity,  6.3.  Has  a  metallic  lustre,  but  streak 
and  color  iron-black.  S  16.2,  Sb  15.3,  silver,  68.5  =  100. 
It  rarely  contains  traces  of  Fe  and  Cu.  It  is  soluble  in  dilute 
heated  nitric  acid  with  precipitation  of  sulphur. 


SILVER.  97 

Before  the  blowpipe,  acts  as  in  the  last-mentioned  mineral 
except  that  after  long  blowing  a  red  color  appears  upon  the 
antimonial  coloring,  on  the  charcoal,  from  the  oxidized  silver. 

ARGENTITE  is  a  sulphide  of  silver.  H.  2.  to  2.5  ;  grav.,  7.2 
to  7.3.  Lustre  metallic,  streak  and  color  blackish  lead-gray, 
but  streak  shining.  Opaque,  readily  cut  with  a  knife. 
Composition  S  12.9,  silver  87.1  =  100,  but  generally  less 
silver.  It  occurs  in  Nevada  and  some  other  mines  with 
stephanite  and  is  an  ore. 

RUBY  SILVER,  or  PYRARGYRITE  is  an  antimonious  sulphur 
silver,  sometimes  found  in  large  masses,  one  in  Idaho,  Poor- 
man's  lode,  weighing  several  hundred  weight.  H.  2.  to  2.5  ; 
grav.,  5.7  to  5.9,  lustre  metallic,  color  from  black  to  carmine 
red,  streak  red,  translucent  to  opaque.  Composition  S  17.7, 
Sb  22.5,  silver  59.8  —  100,  specimen  in  possession  of  the 
author  about  57  per  cent,  silver,  from  Mexico. 

It  appears  then  from  the  preceding  that  silver  when  not 
native  is  generally  found  associated  with  S,  Sb,  Pb,  Bi,  and 
it  is  the  desire  of  the  assay er  at  first  to  separate  the  silver  as 
the  most  important  element. 

THE  DRY  WAY.  Cupellation  is  the  process  used.  This  we 
have  described  in  the  introduction  to  this  part  of  our  work. 
But  there  is  a  preliminary  assay  with  the  ore,  the  object  of 
which  is  to  form  an  alloy  of  the  silver  contained  in  the  ore 
with  lead,  which  is  to  be  added  generally  as  litharge. 

The  process  as  described  by  Makins  is  the  simplest  and  is 
as  follows :  As  it  is  best  to  have  no  more  lead  for  the  subse- 
quent cupel  operation  than  is  absolutely  necessary,  the  flux- 
ing with  litharge  is  an  operation  requiring  much  care,  since 
the  ore  itself  is  apt  to  vary  very  much  in  its  effect  upon  the 
litharge  and  so  render  different  and  opposite  modes  of  treat- 
7 


98  MINERALS,  MINES    AND    MINING. 

ment  necessary.  For  example,  most  ores  contain  sulphur 
or  other  bodies  which  have  a  strong  affinity  for  oxygen, 
hence  such  ores  would  very  readily  reduce  the  litharge. 
Therefore,  in  order  to  prevent  this  from  taking  place  to  too 
great  an  extent,  it  is  found  necessary  to  add  also  an  oxidiz- 
ing flux,  as  nitre  (potassium  nitrate),  to  counteract  in  a  suffi- 
cient degree  the  reducing  powTer  of  the  ore.  Then,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  ore  may  naturally  be  of  an  oxidizing  char- 
acter, in  which  case  not  only  will  no  oxidizing  flux  be 
required,  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  reducing  one,  such  as  argol 
(coarse  bitartrate  of  potass),  must  be  used ;  while,  lastly,  the 
ore  may  chance  to  possess  just  the  reducing  power  requisite  to 
act  sufficiently  upon  the  litharge  and  no  more,  in  which  case 
the  litharge  alone  is  employed. 

From  all  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first  step  required  in 
the  assay  of  a  silver  ore  is  one  whereby  we  may  learn  its 
nature  in  the  above-mentioned  respects.  For  this  purpose 
Mitchell  advises  a  preliminary  assay  upon  about  twenty 
grains  of  ore,  which  is  to  be  powdered  and  mixed  intimately 
with  five  hundred  of  litharge.  This  mixture  is  put  into  a 
small  crucible,  capable  of  containing  about  double  the  bulk ; 
the  crucible  is  heated  very  gently  at  first,  but  after  a  time  the 
heat  is  to  be  quickly  raised  to  a  lull  red  so  as  to  complete 
the  operation  as  speedily  as  possible.  When  cool  the  pot  is 
broken,  and  the  button  removed  and  weighed.  It  may  be 
that  but  little  lead  has  been  reduced,  perhaps  not  more  than 
half  the  weight  of  the  ore  used.  In  such  a  case  an  actual 
assay  would  be  made  of  the  following  mixture :  200  grains  of 
ore,  200  of  sodic  carbonate,  1000  of  litharge,  and  15  grains  of 
argol,  for  the  purpose  of  assisting  the  reduction  of  the  lead. 
Secondly,  if  the  trial  button  should  weigh  about  double  the 


SILVER.  99 

weight  of  ore  employed  then  the  same  mixture  should  be 
used,  except  as  regards  the  argol,  which  must  be  omitted  and 
about  fifty  grains  of  nitre  be  used  in  its  place.  Thirdly,  if 
the  trial  button  weighed  about  the  same  as  the  ore  then  lith- 
arge alone  would  be  employed  without  either  reducing  or 
oxidizing  flux. 

The  mixture  being  intimately  made  as  above  is  to  be  put 
into  a  proper  sized  crucible,  and  it  may  be  here  observed  that 
in  all  cases  where  nitre  is  employed,  either  in  assaying  or 
melting  operations,  a  very  capacious  crucible  should  be  taken, 
as  considerable  action  is  always  set  up.  The  mixture  is  next 
covered  with  a  layer  of  salt  (sodium  chloride)  and  lastly  with 
200  grains  of  powdered  borax.  The  crucible  is  put  into  the 
furnace  and  the  gentle  heat  at  first  used  raised  until  the 
fluxes  are  thoroughly  liquid,  at  which  point  the  assay  will  be 
found  completed.  The  pot  is  then  removed  and  when  cool 
broken,  the  button  hammered  so  as  to  separate  all  the  flux, 
and  reserved  for  subsequent  cupellation. 

There  is  another  operation  which  is  applicable  in  all  cases, 
especially  where  the  assay  is  one  of  shop  sweepings  containing 
solder  and  even  zinc  and  tin,  and  hence  applicable  to  almost 
any  ore  of  similar  composition.  It  has  the  name  of  scorifica- 
tion  and  precedes  the  work  of  cupellation.  It  consists  in 
heating  the  specimen  under  examination  with  a  quantity  of 
granulated  lead  in  a  shallow  clay  vessel  or  "  scorifier,"  the 
name  given  it  in  the  chemical  warehouse.  The  operation,  as 
given  by  Makins,  is  as  follows  :  The  scorifier  is  so  placed  in  a 
muffle  as  that  a  current  of  atmospheric  air  may  pass  over  the 
surface  of  the  vessel  and  oxidize  portions  of  the  lead.  This 
oxide  of  lead  then  forms  a  menstruum  for  the  suspension  of 
foreign  matters  and  combines  with  silica  as  a  fusible  slag, 


100  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

while  the  portion  kept  unoxidized  will  retain  the  gold  and 
silver  sought  for  in  the  sample. 

The  operation  is  carried  on  as  follows :  A  quantity  of 
about  fifty  grains  of  the  sample  is  weighed  and  powdered ; 
this  will  be  about  the  quantity  workable  in  one  scorifier,  but 
it  is  advisable  to  work  this  as  in  all  assays  double,  hence  two 
scorifiers  are  prepared.  A  quantity  of  granulated  lead  is 
next  taken  and  the  amount  required  may  range  from  twelve 
to  thirty  times  the  weight  of  the  ore  or  of  the  sweepings. 
The  quantity  required  will  be  large  if  much  tin  or  zinc  be 
present,  or  if  (as  in  the  case  of  an  ore)  it  contain  a  large 
proportion  of  lime  salts.  Half  this  amount  of  lead  is  first 
put  into  each  scorifier  and  upon  it  the  50  grains  of  the 
specimen,  previously  mixed  with  50  of  borax.  The  whole 
is  then  mixed  and  covered  with  the  remaining  half  of  lead. 
The  scorifiers  are  then  placed  in  a  heated  muffle  and  the 
opening  closed  up  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour  so  as  to  fuse  the 
lead.  The  heat  is  then  allowed  to  fall,  the  door  of  the 
muffle  opened  as  in  carrying  on  a  cupellation,  and  the  roast- 
ing of  the  mass  commenced.  A  slag  will  form  first  at  edges 
of  the  bath  and  increase  over  the  surface,  but  as  the  lead 
oxidizes  it  becomes  quite  fluid ;  the  whole  should  be  now 
occasionally  stirred  so  as  to  keep  all  parts  mixed.  The  heat 
is  then  raised,  whereby  the  whole  is  rendered  fully  liquid. 
This  last  fact  may  be  judged  of  by  the  facility  with  which 
it  runs  off  an  iron  stirrer  which  is  crooked  at  the  end  so  as 
conveniently  to  be  dipped  into  the  bath.  Thus  under  the 
influence  of  the  borax  the  metallic  particles  are  so  cleansed 
as  to  run  well  together,  the  borax  assisting  also  in  the  forma- 
tion of  a  liquid  slag  from  the  first.  The  assay  being  in  this 
limpid  state  at  the  end  of  the  operation  (which  will  be  com- 


SILVER. 


IR)10 


pleted   at   the   end    of  half  an   hour  to 

scorifier  is  removed  and   its  contents  poured   quickly  into  a 

hemispherical  iron  ingot-mould.     Thus  a  button  is  obtained, 

consisting  of  a  greenish  slag  at  the  top,  covering  a  button  of 

metal  ;  these  are  to  be  separated  by  a  blow  of  the  hammer 

and  the  metal   reserved  for  cupellation  and  "  parting  "  for 

gold. 

If  the  operation  has  been  well  performed,  this  button  will 
be  tolerably  malleable,  and  the  slag  quite  free  from  any 
beads  of  metal.  If  these  features  be  not  present  the  assay 
is  not  trustworthy.  The  working  may  be  divided  into  three 
stages,  namely,  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  for  the  first 
fusion  ;  next  twenty  minutes  for  the  roasting  and  oxidiza- 
tion ;  and  lastly,  ten  minutes  for  the  •  final  fusion  of  the 
whole. 

The  next  process  is  that  of  cupellation.  This  depends 
upon  the  property  which  characterizes  the  noble  metals, 
namely,  that  when  heated  to  fusion,  and  exposed  to  a  current 
of  air,  not  the  least  oxidation  takes  place,  while  such  treat- 
ment of  base  metals  constituting  alloys,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, perfectly  oxidizes  them.  So  that  by  this  means  alone 
we  are  able  to  get  rid  of  the  alloy  associated  with  a  precious 
metal,  platinum  excepted.  (See  under  Lead.) 

The  buttons  are  now  ready  for  cupellation,  which  process 
we  have  described.  In  addition  to  what  we  have  already 
stated,  we  may  say  that  charcoal,  coke,  or  anthracite  may  be 
used,  charcoal  for  a  small  furnace,  coke  and  anthracite  for  a 
larger  one.  The  objectionable  feature  in  some  otherwise  very 
well  arranged  cupel  furnaces  is  that  the  furnace  is  too  thin  in 
front  and  the  heat  becomes  disagreeably  great.  If  the  front 
is  built  with  two  bricks  and  the  sides  with  one  brick  thick- 


102  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ness,  the  furnace  heat  is  more  endurable.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  have  a  draft  sufficiently  strong  and  a  damper  in  the  pipe, 
if  a  stove  is  used,  or  a  sliding  cut-off  in  the  chimney  if  the 
furnace  connects  with  the  chimney  directly.  The  muffle 
should  have  a  well  fitting  piece  of  brick  (fire  brick)  stopper  to 
correct  or  stop  entirely  the  draft  passing  from  the  front  of  the 
muffle  over  the  assay  when,  as  in  this  case  stated  above,  it  is 
better  to  stop  for  a  season  all  draft  through  the  muffle.  (See 
the  drawing  already  given.) 

Caution.  It  has  been  found  that  when  the  silver  is  worked 
with  less  than  three  times  its  weight  of  lead  the  result  is  not 
trustworthy,  and  Makins  says  that  the  English  standard  re- 
quires six  times  its  weight.  Hence,  we  should  exceed  the 
three  times  rather  than  attempt  to  equal  it. 

The  fusible  lead  oxide  readily  gives  up  a  part  of  its  oxygen 
to  any  copper  oxide  which  is  also  formed,  and  this  cupric 
oxide  is  dissolved  in  the  fluid  litharge  and  passes  with  it  into 
the  porous  cupel  in  which  the  assay  is  made.  Tin  or  anti- 
mony or  any  volatile  metal,  or  substance,  has  been  probably 
entirely  driven  off  in  the  scorification  and  finally  almost  en- 
tirely disappears.  Unfortunately  the  dry  processes  are  usually 
attended  with  some  loss  of  silver,  sometimes  very  minute  and, 
perhaps  for  some  purposes,  unimportant,  but  nevertheless  for 
very  accurate  results  we  must  resort  to  the — 

WET  PROCESS,  or  humid  assay  of  silver.  A  process  of  sepa- 
rating silver  from  copper  is  that  of  Haidlen  and  Fresenius, 
namely  :  Add  cyanide  of  potassium  to  the  solution  of  the  two 
metals  until  the  precipitate  redissolves.  A  current  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  is  then  passed  into  the  liquor,  the  excess 
of  gas  expelled  by  heat,  and  a  little  more  cyanide  added. 
The  silver  is  thus  precipitated  while  the  copper  remains  in 
solution. 


SILVER.  103 

Another  method  where  gold  is  in  association  is  as  follows : 
Dissolve  the  argentiferous  copper  in  sulphuric  acid  'and  pre- 
cipitate the  silver  from  the  solution  by  introducing  clean 
slips  of  copper ;  the  precipitated  silver,  which  is  in  the  form  of 
a  gray  metallic  powder,  is  washed  and  fused  in  a  clay  cru- 
cible with  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  potassium  and  borax ;  it  is 
thus  purified  from  the  copper  which  may  have  been  precipi- 
tated with  it.  The  copper  may  for  the  arts  be  recovered  by 
crystallization  as  eupric  sulphate  (blue  vitriol),  and  the  gold 
having  remained  in  the  solution,  undissolved  in  the  sulphuric 
acid,  can  be  filtered  therefrom,  before  crystallizing  the  copper 
sulphate.  This  method  is  used  where  the  silver  and  gold 
only  are  required  very  nearly  accurately  and  the  copper  "  by 
difference  "  by  subtracting  the  weights  of  the  gold  and  silver 
from  the  weighed  argentiferous  copper  used  at  the  beginning. 
But  this  process  is  not  so  accurate  as  may  be  required.  In 
that  case  the  specimen  may  be  dissolved  in  nitric  acid  and 
the  silver  chloride  precipitated  by  hydrochloric  acid,  as  we 
have  elsewhere  shown,  filtered,  washed,  and  weighed  after  the 
chloride  has  been  reduced  by  hydrogen  (see  under  Reagents 
"  silver  nitrate  "),  and  the  copper  determined  by  difference. 

Caution. — Rose  has  shown  that  some  traces  of  silver  are 
dissolved  in  chlorides  of  potassium,  sodium,  and  ammonium, 
and  therefore  it  is  not  well  to  precipitate  silver  by  these  salts, 
but  when  it  has  been  so  precipitated  it  is  recommended  (by 
Gay-Lussac  and  Liebig)  to  evaporate  the  solution,  filtered 
from  the  chloride  of  silver,  nearly  to  dryness,  and  to  treat 
the  residue  with  nitric  acid ;  on  exposing  the  whole  to  heat, 
the  alkaline  chlorides  are  converted  into  nitrates,  while  the 
small  quantity  of  silver  chloride  remains  unaltered,  and  does 
not  dissolve  when  the  mixture  is  diluted.  Silver  is  sepa- 


104  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

rated  from  all  the  metals  of  the  first  four  groups  (see  at  the 
beginning  of  this  part)  by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  from  acid 
solutions.  From  lead  it  may  be  separated  by  hydrochloric 
acid,  the  solution  having  been  previously  diluted  largely  to 
prevent  the  precipitation  of  chloride  of  lead,  or  by  heating 
the  solution  containing  both  metals  with  cyanide  of  potas- 
sium which  precipitates  the  lead  in  the  state  of  carbonate, 
retaining  the  silver  in  solution,  as  argento-cyanide  of  potas- 
sium. The  silver  is  subsequently  precipitated  in  the'  form  of 
cyanide  of  silver  by  the  addition  of  nitric  acid. 
.  To  separate  SILVER  from  LEAD  the  precipitation  is  advan- 
tageously preceded  by  addition  of  sodium  acetate.  The  fluid 
must  be  hot  and  the  hydrochloric  acid  rather  dilute  and  no 
more  added  of  the  latter  than  is  just  necessary.  In  this 
manner  the  separation  may  be  readily  effected,  since  lead 
chloride  dissolves  in  sodium  acetate.  The  silver  chloride  is 
washed  with  hot  water.  The  lead  is  thrown  down  from  the 
filtrate  by  hydrogen  sulphide.  Great  care  must  be  taken  in 
washing  the  silver  chloride  from  all  sodium  acetate. 

SILVER  is  separated  from  cadmium  and  bismuth  com- 
pounds, thus :  Add  to  the  nitric  acid  solution  containing  ex- 
cess of  nitric  acid  hydrochloric  acid  as  long  as  a  precipitate 
forms,  and  separate  the  precipitated  silver  chloride  from  the 
solution  which  contains  the  other  metals  by  introducing  a 
strip  of  zinc,  or  iron,  and  add  some  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
Wash  the  spongy  silver  first  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  then 
with  water,  and  finally  dissolve  it  in  nitric  acid.  It  may 
now  be  precipitated  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  be  deter- 
mined (weighed)  as  chloride,  or  by  reducing  with  zinc  to 
silver,  washed  and  dried,  be  weighed  as  silver,  as  we  have 
already  shown.  (See  under  "  Reagents  "  for  silver  chloride  re- 
duced to  silver  by  zinc.) 


SILVER.  105 

SILVER  from  MERCURY  requires  that  the  nitric  acid  solu- 
tion, or  rather  the  silver  nitrate  in  solution  should  have  an 
addition  of  acetate  of  sodium.  But  to  be  sure  of  complete 
separation  of  the  silver,  mix  the  nitric  acid  solution  (free 
from  any  mercurous  salt  and  acidified  with  nitric  acid)  with 
sufficient  water,  and  with  hydrochloric  acid  so  long  as  any 
precipitate  falls.  Filter  and  heat  the  precipitate  with  a  little 
nitric  acid,  and  a  little  water,  then  add  a  few  drops  of  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  filter  off  the  silver  chloride.  This  is  done 
lest  any  mercuric  salt  was  precipitated  with  the  silver.  In 
the  filtrate  the  mercuric  solution  remains  which  must  be 
determined  as  sulphide  by  diluting  sufficiently,  acidulating 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  precipitating  with  clear  saturated 
hydrogen  sulphide  water,  or  (in  the  case  of  large  quantities) 
by  passing  through  it  the  gas.  Filter  quickly  after  allowing 
a  partial  deposit,  wash  with  cold  water,  dry  at  the  heat  or 
boiling  water,  and  weigh.  The  proportions  are  as  follows : 

Hg  200  86.21  per  cent. 

S  32  13.79    "       " 


232  100.00 

SILVER  from  SULPHURETS.  In  assaying  the  sulphurets,  the 
finely  pulverized  ore  must  be  acted  upon  by  strong  nitric  acid 
as  in  the  case  of  lead  sulphuret.  (See  under  Copper  Sulphides 
for  another  process.) 

The  world's  product  of  silver  for  the  five  years  from  1880 
to  1884  was  on  an  average  about  equal  in  coinage  value  to 
that  of  gold.  From  1885  to  1893  it  has  steadily  increased, 
reaching  $209,165,000  in  the  latter  year.  The  principal 
silver-producing  regions  have  been  the  United  States  ($77,- 
575,757  *,  in  1893),  Mexico  and  South  America,  in  the  order 

*  Coining  value. 


106  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

named,  to  which  have  been  added  Australia  in  the  second 
period,  the  product  of  which,  mainly  coming  from  the  Broken 
Hill  mines,  has  increased  from  $1,000,000  in  1885  to  $13,- 
000,000  in  1891. 


COPPER. 

The  useful  copper  minerals  may  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  the  native  copper  ores,  the  compound  copper  ores,  and 
ores  not  strictly  copper  ores,  but  ores  from  which  in  obtain- 
ing other  metals,  copper,  as  a  matter  of  economy,  is  extracted. 

NATIVE  COPPER,  as  a  true  ore,  occurs  in  the  United  States 
most  extensively  in  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region  near 
Keweenaw  Point.  One  mass  weighing  420  tons  was  dis- 
covered in  1857  in  the  Minnesota  mine  in  the  belt  of  con- 
glomerate, which  forms  the  foot-wall  of  the  vein.  (Dana.) 
But  it  has  been  found  in  New  Jersey,  Connecticut,  California, 
and  Arizona ;  compound  and  native  in  Montana,  New  Mexico, 
Colorado,  Utah,  Wyoming,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Missouri,  and 
elsewhere. 

It  is  almost  always  associated  with  silver,  sometimes  with 
bismuth  and  other  metals. 

HARDNESS,  2.5  to  3  ;  gravity,  8.8  to  8.9,  in  the  best  native 
ore.  Melts  at  about  1980°  Fah. 

BEFORE  THE  BLOWPIPE  it  fuses  easily  ;  on  cooling  becomes 
covered  with  a  coat  of  black  oxide.  Dissolves  readily  in 
nitric  acid  giving  off  red  fumes.  Easily  distinguished  by  its 
color. 

ITS  GEOLOGICAL  POSITION  varies.  In  Eastern  United  States 
it  is  found  in  the  red  sandstone,  in  Lake  Superior  region  in 


COPPER.  107 

the  Silurian  trap  rocks,  in  Texas  in  the  granite,  in  quartz 
rocks,  as  reported ;  its  locality  is  generally  among  the  earlier 
formations. 

The  copper  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  occurs  almost 
exclusively  in  the  native  state.  It  is  obtained  from  upturned 
rocks  of  Algonkian  age,  known  as  the  Keweenawan  series,  and 
are  in  turn  overlapped  by  nearly  horizontal  Cambrian  sand- 
stones. The  copper  occurs  in  regions  of  intense  alterations, 
in  small  veins  traversing  the  beds  at  right  angles  to  strike 
and  dip,  in  the  amygdules  and  in  the  interstices  of  the  con- 
glomerates. The  ore  of  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  and  adjoin- 
ing mines  is  obtained  from  a  thin  bed  of  conglomerate  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  series.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
copper  has  been  deposited  from  wet  solution  as  a  stage  in  the 
process  of  rock  alteration,  and  as  a  pseudomorphous  replace- 
ment of  certain  minerals  in  the  rocks.  It  is  assumed  that 
these  deposits  are  a  concentration  of  copper  salts  once 
minutely  disseminated  throughout  the  entire  great  series  of 
rocks,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  original  form  of  the  mineral 
in  these  rocks  was  sulphide.  Minute  specks  of  copper 
minerals  are  found  in  the  succeeding  sandstones,  but  as  yet 
no  concentrations  sufficient  to  form  workable  deposits.  The 
deposits  are  remarkable  for  the  comparative  absence  of  other 
metallic  minerals,  except  silver,  which  also  occurs,  to  a 
limited  extent,  in  the  native  state. 

The  Montana  copper  ores  are  almost  exclusively  derived 
from  the  mining  district  of  Butte.  Here  they  occur  in  a 
series  of  strong  fissure-veins  in  a  basic  granite,  which  in 
places  is  almost  diorite  in  composition.  The  copper-bearing 
ores  are  mainly  chalcocite  and  chalcopyrite. 

In  Arizona   copper  ores  occur  in  the  central  part  of  the 


108  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Territory  in  the  crystalline  schists,  which  may  correspond  to 
the  Algonkiaii  series  exposed  in  the  Grand  Canon  100  miles 
north  of  Prescott.  The  principal  mine  thus  far  has  been  the 
Verde,  just  north  of  Prescott,  where  the  ores  are  massive  car- 
bonates near  the  surface  which  pass  into  oxysulphides  in 
depth.  The  ores  contain  gold  and  silver  irregularly  dis- 
tributed throughout  them.* 

The  usual  compound  ores  of  copper  are  chiefly  COPPER 
PYRITES,  from  which  the  larger  part  of  the  copper  in  Great 
Britain  is  obtained.  Its  composition  is  Cu2  S,  Fe2  S3,  and 
contains,  when  pure,  34.4  per  cent,  copper,  but,  due  to  im- 
purities, it  may  not  hold  more  than  ten  or  twelve  per  cent. 
COLOR,  brassy ;  gravity,  4.2.  LOCALITY,  in  the  primitive 
rock,  and  especially  in  clay  slate. 

Another  sulphide  is  worked,  called  purple  ore,  or  variegated 
ore,  whose  composition  varies  but  is  generally  Cu2  S,  FeS2 
with  56  per  cent,  of  copper. 

There  is  another  ore  also  a  sulphide,  called  indigo  copper. 
This  contains  66  per  cent,  copper,  but  although  specimens 
are  found  in  some  places  it  does  not  occur  extensively  as 
an  ore. 

Other  ores  with  less  copper  may  be  worked  and  may  be 
valuable. 

BLOWPIPE  AND  OTHER  DETECTION  OF  COPPER.  Heated  in 
the  blowpipe  oxidizing  flame  it  will  generally  produce  a 
greenish  tinge  to  the  flame  changing  to  azure  blue  when 
moistened  with  hydrochloric  acid.  With  borax  a  green  bead 
is  formed,  which  becomes  blue  when  cold.  In  the  reducing 
flame  the  bead  will  be  colorless  when  hot,  and  reddish  and 

*  Geological  Distribution  of  the  Useful  Metals  in  the  United  States,  by 
S.  F.  Emmons. 


COPPER.  109 

opaque  when  cold  if  well  saturated.  If  heated  upon  char- 
coal with  soda  carbonate  in  the  reducing  flame  we  get  a  bead 
of  metallic  copper,  if  not  too  much  mixed  with  impurities.  . 

Copper  may  be  detected  in  exceedingly  weak  solutions  by 
placing  a  drop  of  the  suspected  solution  upon  a  strip  of  clean 
platinum  foil.  If  now  a  point  of  zinc  be  placed  in  the  solu- 
tion, but  touching  the  foil,  a  spot  of  reduced  copper  will  be 
seen,  if  present,  at  the  point  of  contact. 

The  blue  reaction  which  copper  ores,  when  roasted,  or  cal- 
cined, in  a  little  crucible,  or  in  fragments,  under  the  blowpipe, 
with  carbonate  of  soda,  give  with  ammonia,  always  indicates 
the  presence  of  copper,  and  after  the  discovery  that  the  ore 
contains  copper  we  proceed  to  ascertain  the  quantity. 

BY  DRY  METHOD.  This  method  never  will  yield  all  the 
copper  accurately,  but  it  is  so  nearly  the  kind  of  copper  pro- 
duced by  the  smelting  works  before  it  is  entirely  refined,  that 
it  is  by  some  preferred  as  an  assay,  and  is  as  follows :  Take 
about  two  or  three  hundred  grains,  but  if  lean,  as  an  ore,  take 
more.  The  weighed  quantity  is  mixed  with  about  twice  its 
weight  of  a  flux  composed  of  equal  weights  of  lime,  borax, 
powdered  glass,  and  fluorspar.  The  mixture  is  put  into  a 
crucible  and  heated  to  fusion,  tapped  down  so  as  to  cause  all 
particles  to  conglomerate  in  the  bottom  of  the  crucible.  The 
whole  is  then  poured  into  any  iron  mould,  and  as  soon  as  set 
the  whole  is  plunged  into  water,  thus  cracking  off  the  glassy 
slag.  The  brittle  "  regulus  "  is  then  powdered,  roasted  with- 
out allowing  it  to  fuse,  but  stirring  to  get  rid  as  far  as  possi- 
ble of  all  volatile  matter.  When  well  roasted  the  residue  is 
put  into  a  crucible  and  mixed  with  a  flux  composed  of  argol, 
nitre  (saltpetre),  and  borax  ;  the  crucible  is  now  heated  till 
the  copper  subsides  beneath  the  slag.  The  button  may  be  a 


110  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

little  coarse  but  it  can  be  refined  to  some  degree  by  throwing 
it  into  a  red  hot  crucible  and  heating  with  some  flux  of  lime 
and  powdered  common  porcelain,  or  powdered  china,  in  the 
proportion  of  two-thirds  weight  of  the  former  and  one-third  of 
the  latter,  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  cover  the  button  a  half 
inch  deep.  Heat  to  melting  for  ten  to  twenty  minutes,  cool 
and  remove  and  weigh. 

THE  WET  METHOD.  If  the  solution  contains  only  copper  or 
no  other  metal  whose  oxide  is  thrown  down  by  potassa,  we 
have  only  to  add  an  excess  of  caustic  potassa,  or  soda,  and 
well  boil  the  precipitate  (oxide  of  copper),  wash,  dry,  and 
weigh.  The  precipitate  (which  is  cupric  oxide)  contains 
79.85  per  cent,  metallic  copper. 

CAUTION.  The  solution  should  be  dilute  and  the  precipi- 
tate well  washed  with  boiling  water,  or  some  potassa  will 
adhere.  If  any  organic  matter  is  in  the  solution  it  will  de- 
teriorate results,  or  if  any  organic  acids  are  used  or  have  been 
in  the  solution,  another  process  must  be  adopted,  or  organic 
matter,  if  any  was  in  the  ore,  must  be  burned  out  by  roasting 
or  by  continued  red  heat.  The  cupric  oxide  thus  formed  is  a 
brownish  black,  or  black  precipitate. 

If  silver  be  present  with  the  copper,  it  is  precipitated  from 
a  nitro-hydrochloric  acid  solution  by  sodium  chloride  as  we 
have  described  under  SILVER,  and  the  copper  in  the  blue  so- 
lution of  copper  precipitated  as  oxide,  as  above  stated. 

THE  COPPER  SULPHIDES,  as  in  many  other  metallic  sul- 
phides, may  be  decomposed  and  sulphur  separated  thus :  The 
sulphur  is  determined  as  sulphuric  acid  (H2O,S04) ;  pul- 
verize the  metallic  sulphide,  weigh  and  place  it  in  a  test  tube. 
Have  a  flask  with  sufficient  fuming  nitric  acid  in  it  to  dis- 
solve all  the  pulverized  sulphide ;  slip  the  test  tube  into  the 


COPPER.  Ill 

flask  and  immediately  cover  the  end  with  a  loose  glass  stopper 
during  the  commotion  of  the  dissolving  powder,  wait  till 
quiet,  and  then  agitate  the  assay  till  all  is  dissolved  and  the 
fuming  gas  is  absorbed  ;  wash  off  the  glass  stopper  with  a  few 
drops  of  nitric  acid  into  the  flask,  heat  gently ;  the  whole  of 
the  sulphur  is  now  in  the  solution  but  it  is  either  oxidized,  or 
in  sulphur  particles.  The  solution  should  be  perfectly  clear, 
which  it  will  be  if  no  metals  were  in  the  assay  which  form  in- 
soluble salts  in  sulphuric  acid,  such  as  lead,  barium,  etc.  If 
there  were  such  metals  a  precipitate  will  occur  and  another 
course  must  be  pursued,  which  we  shall  describe.  Put  the  so- 
lution into  a  dish  and  evaporate  about  one-fifth  with  some 
sodium  chloride,  adding  (toward  the  close  of  evaporation) 
some  hydrochloric  acid,  cooling  the  dish  each  time  before  ad- 
ding more  acid.  Evaporate  three  or  four  times  to  get  rid  of 
nitric  acid,  adding  the  hydrochloric  acid  each  time.  Deter- 
mine the  sulphuric  acid  as  we  have  shown  by  use  of  barium 
chloride. 

Caution. — The  chloride  of  barium  is  soluble  in  some  acids 
and  the  liquor  should,  if  possible,  be  free  from  all  nitric  acid 
or  chlorine  and  have  as  little  free  hydrochloric  acid  as  pos- 
sible. [The  liquor  may  be  tested  for  nitric  acid  and  chlorine, 
detecting  the  one-ten-thousandth  part,  by  adding  a  drop  or 
two  of  the  solution  to  20  or  30  drops  of  pure  sulphuric  acid  in 
a  test  tube  and  stirring  the  mixture  with  a  glass  rod  moist- 
ened at  the  end  with  a  little  brucine.  (Berthemot.)  If  any 
nitric  acid  is  present  the  liquor  becomes  red  and  afterwards 
yellow.  Or,  if  either  nitric  acid  or  chlorine  be  present  in  the 
solution,  a  few  drops  may  be  removed  to  a  test-tube  and  a 
little  solution  of  indigo  in  sulphuric  acid  may  be  added, 
enough  to  give  it  a  blue  color,  and  it  be  heated.  If  any 


112  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

nitrates  or  chlorine  be  present  the  color  will  be  changed  to 
yellow  in  consequence  of  the  oxidation  of  the  indigo  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  nitric  acid  or  the  chlorine.]  The  nitric  acid  may 
be  entirely  eliminated  by  repeated  evaporation  with  pure 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  solution  must  be  diluted  consider- 
ably if  the  precipitate  be  dense  at  first,  and  it  must  be  heated 
to  near  boiling  before  the  barium  chloride  is  added  and  the 
solution  allowed  to  stand  at  a  gentle  heat  for  several  hours. 
Care  in  these  last  movements  will  give  great  accuracy. 

If  any  sulphur  is  floating  in  the  fluid  add  potassium  chlo- 
rate, or  strong  hydrochloric  acid  and  digest  some  time,  plac- 
ing the  dish  upon  a  sand-bath  or  water-bath.  If  all  does 
not  dissolve,  examine,  and  if  the  sulphur  is  all  that  remains, 
and  that  yellow,  filter  off,  and  wash  and  weigh  as  sulphur. 
Other  substances  may  be  lead  sulphate,  or  other  sulphates, 
which  must  be  separated,  washed  and  examined,  and  the 
other  process  to  which  we  have  referred  in  a  former  para- 
graph be  used  when  lead,  barium,  tin,  calcium,  antimony,  or 
stronium  is  present.  This  process  is  that  of  oxidizing  the 
sulphur  with  chlorine.  The  ore  in  this  case  should  be  pul- 
verized exceedingly  fine,  to  80  to  the  inch  when  largest,  and 
heated  several  hours  with  solution  of  pure  potassa.  Then 
conduct  chlorine  into  the  solution  which  speedily  oxidizes  the 
sulphur  to  sulphuric  acid,  the  potassa  becomes  potassium 
sulphate,  and  the  oxides  remain  undissolved.  Filter  and 
wash  the  precipitates  and  reduce  the  sulphuric  acid  in  the 
solution  by  barium  chloride  as  we  have  described  (noting  the 
cautions  suggested),  but  not  until  after  the  alkaline  solution 
is  acidified  very  slightly  with  hydrochloric  acid.  Arsenic 
and  antimony  remain  dissolved  as  acids,  but  the  lead  is  con- 
verted into  insoluble  binoxide  and  is  filtered  out  as  above 


COPPER.  113 

directed.  If  iron  be  present  there  will  appear  a  red  tint,  and 
as  soon  as  that  is  noticed,  discontinue  the  passing  of  the 
chlorine  and  heat  the  liquid  a  few  minutes  with  powdered 
white  quartz  which  decomposes  the  ferric  acid.  If  the  ore 
has  been  exceedingly  finely  pulverized  much  trouble  will  be 
avoided  from  the  rapid  disengagement  of  oxygen  which  re- 
tards the  oxidating  by  the  chlorine. 

Where  the  assayer  desires  chiefly  to  know  the  amount  of 
pure  copper  in  the  assay,  or  only  this,  then  he  may  treat  the 
copper  button  extracted  from  the  ore  in  the  crucible  process 
(dry  way),  and  this  he  may  determine  by  the  copper  oxide 
precipitation  method  which  we  have  already  described. 

The  world's  production  of  copper  in  1892  is  estimated  at 
311,414  long  tons,  of  which  the  United  States  produced  49.6 
per  cent.,  or  practically  one-half,  against  22.4  per  cent.,  or 
less  than  a  quarter,  in  the  year  1882,  when  American  produc- 
tion statistics  were  first  carefully  collected.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  metallic  copper  in  the  United  States  from  1845  to 
1890  is  estimated  at  1,056,436  long  tons.  Of  this  the  Lake 
Superior  region  has  contributed  604,829  tons,  or  57  per  cent. 
Within  the  last  decade  Montana  has  become  the  next  impor- 
tant producer,  yielding  36  per  cent,  to  Lake  Superior's  45  per 
cent,  of  a  total  production  of  115,668  tons.  Next  in  import- 
ance is  Arizona,  which  yielded  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  decade.  These  three  regions  together  are  now 
furnishing  95  to  96  per  cent,  of  the  total  product  of  the  coun- 
try, the  other  4  or  5  per  cent,  of  the  decade's  production 
being  largely  derived  from  ores  sold  in  the  open  market,  can- 
not be  accurately  segregated.  These  ores  come  from  the  fol- 
lowing States  or  group  of  States  which  are  given  in  the  order 
of  their  relative  importance :  Utah  and  Colorado,  New  Mex- 
8 


114  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ico,  California,  the  New  England  States,  Wyoming,  the 
Southern  States,  Nevada,  Idaho,  the  Middle  States;  over 
three-fourths  of  the  total  coming  from  the  first  named  four. 

In  the  Lake  Superior  region  a  single  mine,  the  Calumet  & 
Hecla,  produces  50  to  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  product. 


NICKEL. 

Nickel  is  a  white  metal,  hard,  and  susceptible  of  high 
polish,  but  it  is  not  employed  unalloyed.  DUCTILE  and  very 
TENACIOUS.  Malleable  when  pure,  but  this  property  is  much 
diminished  when  carbon  is  present.  It  is  capable  of  welding 
and  is  feebly  magnetic.  Spec.  grav.  8.82  when  hammered. 
Slowly  soluble  in  sulphuric  or  in  hydrochloric  acid,  but 
freely  so  in  nitric  acid  or  nitro-hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  oxi- 
dized if  heated  strongly  in  the  air.  The  ores  are  arsenide  of 
nickel,  niccolite,  hardness  5  to  5.5  ;  grav.  6.7  to  7.3,  metallic 
lustre;  pale  copper-red,  with  a  tarnish  and  called,  from  its 
color,  copper-nickel ;  brittle  and  contains  from  about  39  to  48 
per  cent,  nickel,  and  from  about  46  to  54  arsenic,  with  traces 
of  iron,  lead,  cobalt,  antimony,  and  sulphur. 

Before  the  blow-pipe,  in  open  tube,  traces  of  sulphurous 
acid  may  be  detected,  but  the  arsenous  acid  is  very  plainly 
detected  [by  small  and  white  coating],  the  assay  becoming 
yellowish  green.  On  charcoal  gives  arsenical  fumes  and  fuses 
to  a  globule.  The  last  residue,  if  treated  with  a  borax  bead, 
on  charcoal,  gives,  successively,  reactions  for  iron,  cobalt  and 
nickel.  (Dana.) 

Nickel  glance  is  an  arseniosulphide  of  nickel  (NiAs2,NiS2). 
Mineralogical  name  Gersdorffite,  normally  its  composition  is 


NICKEL.  115 

arsenic  45.5,  sulphur  19.4,  nickel  35.1  =  100,  but  in  nature 
it  varies  from  33  to  49  per  cent,  arsenic,  22  to  40  per  cent, 
nickel,  and  9  to  21  per  cent,  sulphur,  with  some  iron  and 
cobalt.  Hardness  5.5  and  grav.  5.6  to  6  or  7.  Form  and 
cleavage :  the  latter  cubic,  the  former  with  variations,  like 
iron  pyrites.  Color  :  silver  white  to  steel  gray  and  sometimes 
tarnished. 

The  speiss,  so-called,  is  the  residue  from  making  cobalt  and 
contains  iron,  nickel,  and  copper  combined  with  arsenic  and 
sulphur,  which  residue  remains  in  the  bottom  of  the  crucible. 
From  this  residue  much  of  the  nickel  of  commerce  in  Europe 
is  made.  The  Cornish  ores  seldom  yield  more  than  7  per 
cent,  of  nickel. 

There  are  two  oxides  of  nickel  analogous  to  those  of  iron, 
viz  :  a  protoxide  and  a  sesquioxide ;  the  first  is  precipitated 
from  a  nickel  salt,  by  an  alkali,  as  a  pale  bulky  apple-green 
hydrate,  and  this  is  the  usual  color  of  nickel  salts.  This 
oxide  is  soluble  in  acids  forming  salts  of  nickel.  Ammonia, 
or  ammonia  chloride,  dissolves  this  oxide,  forming  darker 
blue  solutions  (NiO),  atomic  weight  75.  The  anhydrate 
(oxide)  is  best  prepared  by  igniting  the  carbonate  in  a  cov- 
ered crucible  ;  it  is  of  a  brownish-green  color. 

The  second,  or  sesquioxide,  may  be  formed  by  heating  the 
carbonate  as  in  the  last  case,  but  gently  and  with  exposure  to 
air ;  in  this  way  a  black  powder  is  obtained.  This  is  inso- 
luble in  acids,  but  on  heating  it  in  nitric  or  sulphuric  acid, 
salts  of  protoxide  are  obtained,  Ni203,  atomic  weight  166. 

A  chloride  may  be  obtained,  NiCl2,  by  dissolving  the  pro- 
toxide in  hydrochloric  acid  and  evaporating  the  solution  to 
dry  ness,  and  the  residue  may  be  sublimed  in  yellow  crystals. 

There  are  three  sulphides,  a  subsulphide,  a  protosulphide, 


116  MINERALS,  MINES,   AND    MINING. 

and  a  disulphide.  The  protosulphide  is  not  precipitated 
from  nickel  solution  by  hydrogen  sulphide  (dihydric),  but  by 
ammonium  sulphide.  It  then  falls  as  a  black  powder  in  a 
hydrated  state.  It  may  be  formed  as  anhydrated  sulphide  by 
heating  nickel  and  sulphur  together ;  the  action  is  very  vio- 
lent and  the  combination  takes  place  at  a  lower  point  than 
that  of  the  fusing  point  of  sulphur. 

The  alloys  of  nickel  are  chiefly  those  with  copper  and  zinc 
(German  silver),  and  are  51  copper,  30.5  zinc,  18.5  nickel. 
A  little  cobalt  increases  the  ductility  of  nickel,  but  arsenic 
will  render  it  and  its  alloys  brittle  and  dispose  them  to  atmos- 
pheric oxidization.  Iron  and  lead  also  tend  to  render  nickel 
and  its  alloys  brittle. 

The  subject  of  nickel  and  steel  alloy  was  first  called  atten- 
tion to  by  Mr.  James  Riley,  of  Glasgow,  in  a  paper  read  by 
him  before  the  British  Iron  and  Steel  Institute,  at  their  meet- 
ing in  May,  1889.  Quite  recently  the  subject  has  acquired 
much  greater  notoriety,  owing  to  the  results  of  armor-plate 
tests  made  by  the  United  States  government.  Plates  of  all 
descriptions,  with  and  without  nickel,  were  exhaustively  ex- 
perimented with.  High  and  low  carbon  steels  were  shot  at ; 
plates  just  as  they  were  rolled  or  forged,  and  others  which 
had  been  surface-hardened  (Harveyized)  were  again  and 
again  subjected  to  the  fire  of  the  most  formidable  modern 
ordnance  made,  rifles  as  high  as  12-inch  caliber  being  used. 
The  results  have  demonstrated  beyond  all  doubt  the  super- 
iority of  nickel-steel  for  armor  purposes.  The  tough,  tena- 
cious material  flows  under  the  impact  of  the  shot,  and  in  the 
case  of  the  "  Harveyized"  plates,  the  extreme  hardness  of  the 
exterior  surface  reinforced  by  the  tough,  untreated  steel  be- 
hind, shatters  the  forged  steel  Holtzer  projectiles,  which  have- 
hitherto  proved  irresistible. 


NICKEL.  11,7 

The  tests  of  some  of  the  nickel-steel  recently  made  by  Car- 
negie, Phipps  &  Co.,  Pittsburg,  for  the  U.  S.  Navy  Depart- 
ment, gave  the  following  results  :  elastic  limit  (two  specimens) 
59,000  and  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  ultimate  tensile 
strength  100,000  and  102,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  elonga- 
tion 15  J  per  cent.,  and  reduction  of  area  at  fracture  29  J  per 
cent,  and  26J  per  cent.  The  test  pieces  were  cut  from  three- 
fourths  inch  plate.  The  chemical  analysis  gave  a  content  of 
T\  per  cent,  of  nickel.* 

Nickel  is  always  estimated  as  protoxide,  and  if  it  is  precipi- 
tated by  potassa  great  care  must  be  taken  in  washing  out  the 
potassa  before  drying  and  weighing. 

The  separation  of  constituents  in  a  nickel  ore  which  con- 
tains arsenic,  copper,  antimony,  lead,  bismuth,  iron,  cobalt, 
barium,  or  calcium  with  the  nickel  is  as  follows :  After  roast- 
ing the  ore,  as  speiss  or  diarsenide  (kupfer-nickel),  powder 
and  dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid  (concentrated).  Then  add 
to  the  solution  excess  of  hydro-sodic  sulphite  (hydrosulphite  of 
soda)  and  boil  till  the  arsenic  acid  is  reduced  to  arsenous  acid 
and  the  excess  of  sulphurous  acid  is  driven  off.  Next  pass 
into  the  warm  solution  hydrogen  sulphide.  Thus  arsenic; 
copper,  antimony,  lead,  and  bismuth  are  separated,-  and  after 
standing  some  time  filtered  out.  Evaporate  the  filtrate  to 
dryness  and  the  residue  must  be  dissolved  in  water.  Chlor- 
ine is  passed  in.  Add  baric  or  calcic  carbonate,  which  precip- 
itates iron  and  cobalt.  Sulphuric  acid  is  now  added  sufficient 
to  remove  any  dissolved  barium  or  calcium.  After  filtering, 
sodic  carbonate  is  added  wrhich  precipitates  nickel  carbonate, 
and  this  is  reduced  by  heating  to  redness  after  the  usual 
washing  and  drying.  (Cloez.) 

*  Engineering  and  Mining  Journal,  Dec.  13,  1890. 


118  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

If  the  object  is  to  get  pure  nickel,  Deville's  method  is  to  dis- 
solve commercial  nickel  in  hydrochloric  acid,  boil  the  solu- 
tion to  dryness,  digest  the  residue  in  water ;  thus  the  ferric 
oxide  is  left.  Dihydric  sulphide  (sulphuretted  hydrogen)  is 
then  passed  in  to  separate  the  copper  present,  the  solution  be- 
ing diluted  for  the  purpose.  It  is  then  evaporated,  and  when 
sufficiently  concentrated  oxalic  acid  is  added ;  thus  nickel 
oxalate  is  precipitated ;  this  is  heated  intensely  in  a  lime 
crucible  (made  by  excavating  a  cavity  in  a  lump  of  hard 
common  lime)  with  a  well-luted  cover,  so  as  to  exclude  the 
air ;  thus  the  carbonate  oxide,  formed  by  the  decomposition  of 
the  oxalic  acid,  reduces  the  metal  itself. 

M.  Gamier,  in  1867,  discovered  nickel  in  New  Caledonia, 
and  since  1873,  when  active  mining  was  commenced,  these 
deposits  produced  for  some  years  the  principal  supply  of 
nickel,  and  are  even  now  the  largest  producers  of  nickel-sili- 
cates in  the  world.  According  to  M.  David  Levat,  the  nickel 
is  met  with  solely  in  the  form  of  magnesium  hydrated  sili- 
cates— of  beautiful  apple-green  color  when  pure — as  of  coat- 
ings, or  concretions  in  the  fissures  of  the  serpentines.  As 
neither  arsenide  nor  sulphide  of  nickel  has  been  found  in 
New  Caledonia,  it  is  the  opinion  of  Levat  that  the  manner  of 
occurrence  indicates  the  deposition  of  the  ore  from  solution  in 
the  same  state  in  which  it  is  nowT  found.  The  pure  mineral 
often  averages  26  per  cent,  nickel ;  the  average  ore,  however, 
does  not  contain  after  sorting  over  10  per  cent,  of  nickel  in  a 
gangue  of  serpentine.  In  addition  to  the  nickel  ores  proper, 
it  is  found  that  the  massive  serpentines  nearly  all  contain 
nickel  in  proportions  varying  from  1  to  3  per  cent.,  and  in 
some  instances  5  per  cent. 

The  nickel  districts  are  distributed  over  a  series  of  north- 


NICKEL.  119 

east  and  southwest  lines,  starting  from  the  east  coast  and 
extending  towards  the  interior.  The  output  of  nickel  and 
cobalt  ores  from  New  Caledonia  was,  in  1890,  22,690  tons  of, 
say,  10  per  cent,  nickel  ore  and  2,200  tons  of  3  to  5  per  cent. 
€obalt  ore.  The  output  of  nickel  ore  in  1891  was  35,000  tons. 

In  the  United  States  the  ores  of  copper-nickel  found  at  Gap 
Mine,  Lancaster  county,  Pennsylvania,  produced  at  one  time 
one-sixth  of  the  world's  supply  of  nickel,  and  its  total  produc- 
tion is  given  at  4,000,000  pounds — scarcely  more  than  one- 
third  the  present  annual  production  of  the  metal.  The 
deposit  has  been  described  as  a  lenticular  mass  of  hornblende 
rock  embedded  in  mica  schist.  The  ore,  principally  millerite 
associated  with  pyrrhotite,  was  found  impregnating  the  horn- 
blende, at  or  near  the  contact.  This  mine  has  been  worked 
intermittently  for  over  two  centuries,  but  it  has  only  been 
worked  for  nickel  since  1852.  The  ores,  according  to  Blake, 
run  from  1.5  to  2  per  cent,  nickel,  while  Wharton  gives  a 
series  of  analyses  that  show  an  average  of  3.6  per  cent,  nickel 
and  cobalt,  and  0.75  per  cent,  copper.  The  mine  of  late  has 
not  produced  much  ore. 

Somewhat  extensive  deposits  of  silicate  of  nickel  were  dis- 
covered at  Riddles,  in  Douglas  county,  Oregon,  in  1881. 
The  minerals  are  in  appearance  identical  with  those  of  New 
Caledonia.  The  Riddles  deposits  all  lie  at  or  near  the  sur- 
face, and  occur  in  beds  from  4  to  30  feet  in  thickness.  The 
ore  is  found  either  as  boulders  disseminated  in  a  highly 
ferruginous  earth,  or  apparently  in  beds  underlaid  by  serpen- 
tine and  associated  with  chrome  iron. 

Silicate  of  nickel  has  also  been  found  in  the  Webster  mine, 
North  Carolina,  concerning  which  Mr.  Diller  says :  "It  is 
almost  identical  with  that  from  Oregon,  excepting  that  it  is 


120 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


not  so  thoroughly  intermingled  with  quartz.  The  relation  of 
the  genthite  to  the  serpentine  and  the  olivine  at  the  Webster 
locality  is  exactly  the  same  as  at  Riddles." 

F.  W.  Clarke  *  has  compared  a  series  of  New  Caledonia 
silicate  minerals  with  those  of  Webster,  N.  C.,  and  Riddles. 
Oregon,  and  found  them  all  very  similar  in  appearance  and 
composition.  The  purest  specimen  of  Riddles  ore  gave  the 
following  analysis,  with  which  are  compared  some  New  Cale- 
donian specimens  analyzed  by  Hood. 


Loss  at  110°  C  

8  87  per  cent 

-i 

Loss  in  ignition    .... 
ALO,  4-  Fe,O,  . 

6.99        " 
1  18        " 

[•  6.63  per  cent. 
1  38        " 

7.00  per  cent. 

1     00                U 

SiO2    

44  73        u 

48  21         " 

40  55        " 

MgO  . 

1056        u 

19  90        " 

21  70        u 

NiO    

27.57        " 

23  88        u 

29  66        u 

99.90  per  cent. 

100.00  per  cent. 

100.24  per  cent. 

Arsenides  and  sulpho-arsenides  exist  in  the  United  States  in 
the  "Gem"  mine  in  Tremont  county,  Colorado,  and  in 
Churchill  county,  Nevada.  Nickel  has  also  been  found  in  the 
Sierra  Nevada  mountain  region,  near  Mono  Lake,  and  also  in 
Southern  California  in  the  vicinity  of  Corisa  Creek,  and  at 
White  River,  Kern  county.  (Williams.)  Small  amounts 
have  been  found  as  by-products  at  Mine  La  Motte,  Missouri. 

Possibly  the  largest  and  best  known  true  deposits  of  nickel- 
sulphide  ores  are  those  of  Sudbury,  Canada.  The  mines  con- 

*  Am.  Jour,  of  Science,  Vol.  35,  p.  483. 


NICKEL.  121 

sist  of  immense  masses  of  pyrrhotite  frequently  entirely  iso- 
lated, or  connected  by  strings  and  existing  in  the  oldest  rocks 
known  to  the  geologist.  The  region  in  which  these  immense 
nickel  deposits  occur  is  much  faulted,  and  is  traversed  by 
numerous  dykes  of  diabase.  In  places  the  pyrrhotite  and 
chalcopyrite  form  a  breccia  in  a  black  diorite  matrix.  The 
ore  at  Sudbury  has  been  followed  on  its  dip  to  a  depth  exceed- 
ing 600  feet  without  showing  any  sign  of  falling  off  in  the 
value  or  in  the  quantity  of  the  ores.  The  bulk  of  the  Sud- 
bury pyrrhotite  contains  from  1  per  cent,  to  about  5  per  cent, 
nickel,  and  from  1  to  4  per  cent,  copper.  Cobalt  and  traces  of 
gold,  silver  and  platinum  in  the  rare  form  of  the  mineral 
sperrylite  (an  arsenide  of  platinum)  are  also  found  in  this  ore. 
The  following  analyses  of  an  average  month's  output  of 
three  of  the  Sudbury  mines  are  interesting  as  illustrating  the 
ratios  between  the  copper  and  nickel  contents  of  the  ore : 

Copper  Cliff.    Evans.          Stobie. 

Cu 4.31  1.43  1.92 

Ni 5.57  3.74  2.36 

In  screening  the  "  Evans  "  mine  ore  the  following  division 
of  values  is  found  : 

Coarse  ore Cu  —  1.62  Ni  —  3.45 

Raggings Cu  —  2.99         .  Ni  —  3.90 

Fines Cu  — 3.78  Ni  —  5.04 

The  ore  is  sorted  by  hand  into  four  grades :  1st,  the  aver- 
age mixed  copper-nickel  ore ;  2d,  the  copper  pyrites ;  3d,  the 
pyrrhotite  or  nickel  ore ;  and  4th,  the  gangue  rock  or  diorite. 

The  ore  is  roasted  on  the  grounds  until  the  sulphur  is  re- 
duced to  about  6  per  cent.  It  is  then  melted  with  coke  to  a 
matte,  tapped  off  into  bricks  and  shipped  in  this  form  to 


122  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Bethlehem,  Homestead  and  elsewhere,  where  it  is  prepared  for 
the  use  to  which  it  is  put,  chiefly  in  forming  armor  plates  for 
the  Government. 

The  deposits  of  arsenide  ores  in  Nevada  and  silicate  ore 
near  Riddles,  Oregon,  are  considered  worthy  of  careful  study 
among  the  possible  sources  of  future  supply,  especially  with 
the  new  process  of  Ludwig  Mond  in  view.  This  process  de- 
pends upon  the  fact  discovered  by  Mond,  that  carbon  monox- 
ide forms  a  volatile  compound  with  nickel,  from  which  the 
nickel  is  easily  obtained  by  heating  the  compound  to  a  tem- 
perature above  365°  F. 

As  carried  out  commercially,  the  ores  are  roasted  until  the 
nickel  is  in  the  form  of  oxide.  The  oxide  of  nickel — which 
may  contain  any  number  of  impurities — is  reduced  to  the 
metallic  state  by  treating  it  with  carbonic  oxide  or  with  hy- 
drogen, or  a  gaseous  mixture  containing  these  gases,  at  a  tem- 
perature between  662°  and  752°  F.  The  finely-divided  metal 
so  obtained  is  allowed  to  cool  to  the  ordinary  temperature, 
and  is  then  treated  with  carbonic  oxide  gas,  which  may  be 
mixed  with  other  gases,  but  should  be  free  from  oxygen  or 
halogens.  The  nickel  combines  with  the  carbonic  oxide  and 
forms  a  readily  volatile  compound  called  nickel-carbon  oxide, 
which  is  easily  carried  off  by  the  excess  of  gas  employed. 
The  mixture  of  the  vapor  of  this  compound  and  other  gases 
so  obtained  is  passed  through  tubes  or  vessels  in  which  it  is 
heated  to  about  356°  F.,  when  the  nickel-carbon  oxide  is 
again  decomposed  into  nickel  and  carbonic  oxide.  The 
nickel  separates  out  perfectly  pure  in  coherent  metallic 
masses,  more  or  less  attached  to  the  sides  of  the  tubes  or  ves- 
sels in  which  the  gas  has  been  heated,  and  the  carbonic  oxide 
condensed  over  again  to  treat  fresh  masses  of  the  reduced 


NICKEL.  123 

oxide.  After  some  time  the  action  of  the  finely-divided 
nickel  upon  the  carbonic  oxide  becomes  less  energetic.  The 
oxide  is  then  heated  to  662°  or  752°  F.  in  a  current  of  car- 
bonic oxide  or  hydrogen  and  cooled  down  again  to  the  ordi- 
nary temperature ;  by  this  means  its  energy  is  restored. 

Impure  metallic  nickel  obtained  in  any  other  way  than 
the  one  indicated  can  also  be  treated  in  the  same  way  to  ob- 
tain the  pure  metal.  The  action  is  more  rapid  the  more 
finely  the  nickel  is  divided.  The  impurities,  even  cobalt,  are 
not  acted  upon  by  carbonic  oxide,  and  remain  behind  after 
the  nickel  has  been  volatilized. 

The  principal  nickel  ores  contain  nickel  in  combination 
with  arsenic  and  sulphur,  together  with  other  metals  and 
gangue.  These  ores  must  first  be  wasted  to  the  condition  of 
oxide  and  the  arsenic,  sulphur  and  other  volatile  materials 
driven  off  as  far  as  possible.  By  the  subsequent  stages  the 
oxide  of  nickel  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  state  and  volatilized 
with  carbonic  oxide.  In  dealing  with  nickel  ores  which  con- 
tain nickel  oxide  in  chemical  combination  with  silicic  acid, 
arsenic  acid,  or  other  substances  not  removable  by  calcination, 
Mr.  Mond  prefers  to  subject  such  ores  to  such  treatment  as 
will  bring  the  nickel-speiss  or  matte  and  subject  the  latter  to 
calcination.  In  reducing  this  nickel  to  the  metallic  state 
hydrogen  or  carbonic  oxide,  or  both,  are  used.  If  pure  hy- 
drogen alone  is  used,  a  temperature  of  662°  F.  is  sufficient. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  diluted  carbonic  oxide  is  used,  a  tem- 
perature of  932°  F.  and  upward  is  necessary  for  a  complete 
and  speedy  reduction. 

The  finely  divided  nickel  is  allowed  to  cool  to  about 
122°  F.,  which  is  found  the  most  suitable  temperature  for 
treating  it  with  carbonic  acid.  If  preferred,  it  can  be  cooled 


124  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

to  the  ordinary  temperature,  as  the  compound  will  form  at  a 
temperature  as  low  as  32°  F.  It  is  possible  to  work  from 
this  temperature  up  to  302°  F.,  but  it  is  preferable  to  work  at 
the  temperature  of  122°  F.  The  most  suitable  temperature 
for  heating  the  compound  in  separating  the  nickel  again  is 
356°  to  482°  F.  If  this  range  of  temperature  be  exceeded, 
the  nickel  becomes  contaminated  with  carbon  owing  to  its 
power  of  absorbing  carbon  from  carbonic  oxide  and  forming 
carbonic  acid,  while  at  a  temperature  below  356°  F.,  the  de- 
position of  nickel  will  be  less  rapidly  and  less  completely 
effected.  The  nickel  separates  out  perfectly  pure  when  the 
above  conditions  are  observed.  The  carbonic  oxide  is  regen- 
erated, and  the  same  gases  can  be  used  over  and  over  again 
to  extract  new  supplies  of  metal.  There  are  considerable  ad- 
vantages in  thus  using  the  same  gases  repeatedly,  because 
the  danger  arising  out  of  the  poisonous  qualities  of  the  nickel- 
carbon  oxide  are  thus  almost  wholly  overcome,  inasmuch  as 
the  gases  never  leave  the  closed  apparatus  in  which  the  treat- 
ment is  carried  out.  An  experimental  plant  at  Birmingham, 
England,  for  using  this  idea  is  nearly  ready  to  begin  opera- 
tions. The  main  objections  to  the  process  would  seem  to  be 
the  great  size  of  the  plant  to  provide  sufficient  surface- 
capacity  for  extracting  by  means  of  gas. 

As  regards  foreign  localities,  Norway,  Sweden,  Hungary, 
Italy  and  Germany  are  producers  of  nickel.  Norway  has 
extensive  deposits  of  nickel-bearing  pyrrhotite,  but  the  out- 
put has  fallen  off  from  360  tons  in  1876  to  an  average  of  105 
tons  for  the  last  six  years.  The  ore  is  mostly  low-grade,  but 
could  no  doubt  be  worked  more  profitably  if  the  more  recent 
metallurgical  improvements  were  introduced.  Nickel  is  also 
found  in  the  Ural,  at  Rewdinsk,  for  instance,  in  veins  7  feet 


NICKEL.  125 

wide  between  chloritic  schist  and  serpentine,  and  in  many 
other  localities.  The  serpentines  of  the  west  of  Ireland  and 
those  of  Cornwall,  and  indeed  almost  all  serpentines  contain 
a  little  nickel.  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  South  Africa 
have  also  nickel  deposits,  but  it  is  from  New  Caledonia  that 
the  great  bulk  of  foreign  nickel  is  produced. 

The  price  of  nickel  has  so  decreased  from  $2.60  per  pound 
in  1874,  to  $0.75  in  1884,  and  to  $0.35  @  $0.40  in  March, 
1895,  that  many  of  the  discovered  localities  have  not  been 
considered  as  worth  the  capital  necessary  for  remunerative 
working. 

In  examining  for  ores  of  nickel,  it  is  almost  invariably  true 
that  some  of  the  masses,  pieces,  or  specimens  will  show  to  the 
naked  eye  or  under  the  magnifying  lens  the  characteristic 
apple-green  specks  or  streaks  of  some  of  the  salts  of  nickel. 

It  is  very  probable  that  vessels  lined  or  plated  with  nickel 
will  be  used  more  extensively  for  culinary  purposes,  since  the 
effects  of  this  metal  upon  the  human  system  appear  from  ex- 
periments by  F.  Geerkens  less  injurious  than  copper  or  brass, 
and  M.  Mermet  recommends  the  chemist  to  use  crucibles  of 
nickel  in  place  of  silver  as  less  likely  to  melt  and  far  less  ex- 
pensive and  not  more  readily  acted  upon  by  potash  than 
silver. 

The  total  consumption  in  the  United  States  in  1885  was 
about  400,000  pounds  according  to  Williams.  The  coinage 
alone  in  1884  was  399,141  troy  ounces,  which  was  less  than 
in  1883,  when  it  was  703,426  ounces.  A  large  stock  had  ac- 
cumulated which  was  supplied  to  the  market  in  1883  and 
1884,  and  hence  the  total  actual  consumption  cannot  be  told 
by  adding  the  production  of  works  to  the  importations. 

For  the  separation  of  nickel  and  cobalt,  see  process  given  at 
close  of  article  on  cobalt. 


126  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  nickel  product  of  the  United  States  in  1891  was 
118,498  pounds,  valued  at  $76,024  which  was  a  large  decrease 
compared  with  the  preceding  year  (1890,  223,488  pounds, 
valued  at  $134,092). 


IRON. 

Iron  does  not  occur  native,  except  as  meteoric. 

When  pure  its  spec.  grav.  is  7.844. 

Its  malleability,  gold  being  1,  is  6,  and  its  ductility  4.  Its 
tenacity  is  1,  lead  being  11,  and  gold  6.  Its  heat  conducting 
power  is  6,  silver  being  1  ;  its  electrical  conducting  power 
being  in  the  same  order. 

Iron  is  universally  present  in  nature,  but  the  true  ores  of 
iron  are  generally  oxides  and  carbonates ;  the  sulphides, 
though  found  in  some  places  in  large  amounts,  are  not  used 
as  ores  of  iron,  but  for  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
for  other  purposes. 

In  Great  Britain  the  chief  ores  are  the  carbonates ;  they  are 
found  in  beds  in  the  coal-formation  and  alternating  with 
layers  of  coal,  and  hence  the  ore  and  fuel  are  found  in  the 
same  place.  Even  the  limestone  used  as  a  flux  in  the  fur- 
nace is  also  associated  with  the  iron  ore,  and  it  is  not  infre- 
quently the  fact  that  the  entire  supply  of  material  used  in  the 
furnace  is  had  on  the  same  tract  with  the  furnace. 

THE  CHIEF  ORES  OF  IRON,  named  in  order  of  their  richness 
in  pure  iron,  are  : — 

1.  THE  MAGNETIC  ORES.  The  miiieralogical  name  is  MAG- 
NETITE. Pure  magnetic  ore  is  black ;  streak  black ;  brittle ; 
fracture  conchoidal ;  when  in  crystals  they  are  octahedral,  or 


IRON.  127 

of  derived  forms,  even  to  dodecahedral,  but  they  are  deter- 
mined by  their  magnetic  quality.  All  these  ores  are  mag- 
netic in  that  they  effect  the  needle,  but  have  no  magnetism 
necessarily  in  themselves.  When  they  have,  that  is  when 
they  will  attract  a  tack,  or  other  piece  of  iron,  then  they  are 
called  polaric.  Some  fine  and  strong  polaric  ores  are  found 
among  the  Shepard  Mountain  ores  of  Missouri,  but  the  finest 
occur  in  Siberia. 

The  hardness  is  5.5  to  6.5  and  gravity  4.9  to  5.2.  The 
theoretically  pure  specimens  cannot  contain  more  than  72.4 
parts  of  iron,  but  this  degree  of  purity  is  rare  and  never  ex- 
celled in  the  mines.  Yet  we  frequently  hear  people  speak  of 
an  ore  of  75  to  80,  or  even  90  per  cent.  iron.  In  the  Wash- 
ington mine,  not  far  from  Marquette,  Lake  Superior,  the 
writer  has  found  semi-crystalline  masses  which  assayed  nearly 
72  per  cent,  and  were  richer  than  any  found  by  him  in  the 
Port  Henry,  Lake  Ohamplain  region ;  the  ore  from  the  latter 
region  carries  with  it  more  silica  in  grains. 

But  these,  while  they  are  the  richest  ores,  are  by  no  means 
the  only  valuable  magnetic  ores.  Rich  magnetic  ores  are 
found  in  some  places  harder  to  work  than  some  of  the  poorer 
magnetic  ores.  The  associations  are  sometimes  quartz,  alu- 
mina, and  sometimes  lime  (azoic  lime),  as  in  the  Champlain 
region,  but  more  injurious  associations  are  found  in  the  sul- 
phur and  copper  united  with  the  ores  as  in  the  Cornwall 
mines  of  Lebanon  Co.,  Penn.  It  is  sometimes  also  associated 
with  small  amounts  of  arsenic  and  phosphorus.  The  sulphur 
has  the  tendency  to  make  the  iron  break  when  red  hot,  and 
the  phosphorus  when  cold.  The  former  ores  as  well  as  the 
iron  are  called  "  red-short,"  and  the  latter  "  cold-short." 
Small  quantities  of  sulphur  in  an  ore  may,  by  furnace  treat- 


128  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ment,  be  rendered  almost  harmless,  and  ores  containing  phos- 
phorus may  be  partially  neutralized  by  the  use  of  ores  con- 
taining sulphur  to  a  certain  amount.  Hence  large  quantities 
of  ores  are  constantly  successfully  used,  which  have  small 
traces  of  either  sulphur  or  phosphorus,  but  care  must  be  ex- 
ercised in  the  introduction  of  an  ore,  as  to  the  amount  of 
either  phosphorus  or  sulphur  contained,  since  even  0.5  per 
cent,  of  the  former  affects  the  tenacity  of  the  iron. 

Very  frequently  loose  fragments  of  magnetic  iron  ore  are 
found  around  upon  the  surface  of  a  country  where  it  cannot 
be  determined  that  any  true  vein  exists,  the  ore  having  been 
transported  by  natural  agencies. 

The  geologic  position  of  magnetite  is  in  the  lowest  rocks, 
granite,  metamorphic,  and  azoic  series.  All  the  remaining 
ores  appear  to  have  been  derived  from  magnetite.  Magnetic 
ore  has  for  its  chemical  composition  iron  and  oxygen,  in  that 
condition  called  sesquioxide  and  protoxide,  or  Fe203  +  FeO 
=  Fe304.  By  exposure  to  air  it  changes  and  the  iron  takes 
all  the  oxygen,  for  which  it  has  affinity,  and  becomes  en- 
tirely Fe203  without  the  protoxide  FeO.  In  that  mineralog- 
ical  form  it  is  called — 

2.  HEMATITE  OR  RED  HEMATITE,  its  streak  being  a  bright 
red ;  when  pure  its  hardness  is  5.5  to  6.5,  and  gravity  4.5  to 
5.3.  Sometimes  the  crystals,  or  crystalline  forms  appear 
black  and  extremely  polished,  and  hence  it  is  sometimes 
called  specular  ore,  but  when  very  thin  it  can  be  seen  by 
transmitted  light  as  red  and  translucent. 

This  is  the  larger  source  of  the  iron  of  the  United  States, 
and  its  variations  in  appearance,  hardness,  and  consistency, 
are  numerous.  In  some  specimens  (Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  com- 
mercial) it  presents  the  appearance  of  broken  steel  having  a 


IRON.  129 

close,  hard,  and  tough  texture,  leaving  fine  micaceous  par- 
ticles. But  the  streak  is  always  red.  At  other  places  it 
appears  in  masses,  somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch,  and  soft 
as  in  Missouri,  always  red  or  reddish  brown,  containing  as 
high  as  60  per  cent,  c^nore  of  iron.  There  is  another  form 
which  the  author  has  traced  from  Central  New  York  through 
Pennsylvania,  and  which  occurs  at  intervals  somewhat 
changed  down  to  Georgia,  and  which  contains  small  grains  of 
double  convex  to  perfectly  round  forms  like  large  shot,  called 
fish-egg  ore,  lenticular  ore,  etc.,  but  it  is  a  true  red  hematite, 
and  in  some  sections  it  seems  to  contain  traces  of  phosphorus. 

Fragments  of  this  ore  frequently  indicate  large  deposits 
not  far  off. 

The  per  cent,  of  iron  in  a  pure  specimen  of  red  hematite 
is  never  over  70  per  cent. 

It  is  asserted  in  some  mineralogical  works  that  this  ore  is 
"  sometimes  attractable  by  the  magnet,  and  occasionally  even 
magnetipolar,"  but  the  writer  has  examined  several  speci- 
mens asserted  to  be  "  attractable,"  etc.,  and  in  every  case  the 
specimen  contained  traces  of  magnetite  where  the  red  hema- 
tite had  not  entirely  been  changed  into  sesquioxide.  Such 
specimens  we  have  found  on  Staten  Island  in  the  hematite 
mine  there  worked.  We  believe  that  the  red  hematite,  if 
entirely  homogeneous,  is  never  attractable  by  the  magnet. 

3.  BROWN  HEMATITE  is  the  next  ore  in  importance,  and 
differs  from  the  red,  only  that  it  contains,  in  chemical  com- 
binations, a  portion  of  water  varying  somewhat,  but  generally 
about  14  per  cent,  of  its  weight,  when  the  ore  is  fairly  dry. 
Streak,  brown.  Mineralogical  name,  "Limonite."  Brown 
hematite,  when  in  mass  and  pure,  has  a  spec.  grav.  of  3.6  to 
4,  and  hardness  of  5  to  5.5.  Its  composition  in  its  purest 
9 


130  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

state  is,  as  stated  above,  sesquioxide  of  iron,  85.6,  water, 
14.4,  —  100.  It,  therefore,  in  its  purest  state,  contains  59.89 
per  cent,  of  iron,  but  never  more.  The  usual  brown  hema- 
tites seldom  yield  more  than  30  to  35  per  cent,  iron,  and  are 
considered  very  rich  at  40  to  45  per  f/vent.  They  are  easily 
worked  and  some  of  the  best  charcoal  irons  are  made  from 
this  ore. 

Its  geologic  position,  as  a  rule,  is  not  in  the  older  rocks, 
but  in  the  secondary,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  derived  from 
the  red  hematite  by  water  agencies.  In  many  parts  of  the 
United  States  the  author  has  found  that  the  largest  and  best 
brown  hematite  beds  are  upon  basins,  at  the  present  time, 
and  that  in  very  many  instances  they  may  be  located  by 
examining  the  country  where  such  ore  does  exist  and  exca- 
vating upon  the  lower  levels,  or  where  ancient  water-sheds 
inclined  away  from  magnetic  ranges. 

The  impurities  of  these  ores  are  generally  alumina,  silica, 
lime,  magnesia,  phosphates,  sulphides,  and  manganese. 

There  are  in  some  mines  (on  the  Lehigh,  opposite  Easton, 
Penn.,)  some  peculiarities  of  appearance  in  the  limonite. 
Some  specimens  are  round  and  hollow,  and  when  broken 
present  a  black  concave  surface  of  exceeding  hardness  and 
splendid  polish,  but  the  streak  is  always  brown  and  the  tex- 
ture fibrous  below  the  polished  surface,  and  the  small  amount 
of  silicious  loose  material  found  in  every  polished  geode  seems 
to  suggest  the  cause  of  that  polish,  namely,  the  constant  mo- 
tion of  the  geode  through  ages  in  the  moving  waters  of  some 
shallow  lake.  Some  of  these  specimens  show  the  presence  of 
manganese  in  small  quantities,  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 
peculiar  features  of  this  ore  are  due  to  the  presence  of  that 
metal. 


IRON.  131 

Limonite  (so  called  from  the  Greek  for  a  meadow)  is  found 
as  bog  ore  in  wet  lands  in  nodules,  frequently  in  concentric 
layers,  and  called,  in  some  parts  of  Southeastern  Ohio, 
"  kidney  ore."  Sometimes  it  is  found  in  long,  sedimentary 
strata,  as  in  the  mines  along  the  Lehigh,  Penn.,  and  not  far 
off  in  stalactite  and  rounded  masses  in  the  mines  near  Allen- 
town,  Penn.  Also  with  incrustations  of  minute  quartz  crys- 
tals as  at  five  or  six  miles  east  of  Phillipsburg,  N.  J.  The 
mine  at  this  place  is  not  worked,  the  ore  being  too  silicious. 

4.  Another  ore,  called  SPATHIC  ORE,  is  found  in  smaller 
quantities  in  the  United  States.  It  is  an  iron  carbonate, 
FeC03.  When  pure  it  contains  48.27  per  cent,  iron,  is  of  a 
light  brown  or  gray  color,  translucent.  Hardness,  3.5  to  4.5  ; 
grav.,  3.7  to  3.9.  Streak,  white.  Mineralogical  name, 
Siderite.  But  it  has  not  yet  been  found  in  so  large  quantities 
as  to  constitute  an  ore.  In  Connecticut,  at  Roxbury,  it 
occurs  in  veins  in  quartz  in  gneiss. 

In  another  form,  as  agillaceous  carbonate,  of  a  dark  or 
bluish-gray  color  (a  clay  iron-stone),  it  is  found  in  large 
quantities  in  Pennsylvania,  seen  best  at  Johnstown,  and  in 
Northeastern  Ohio ;  considerably  altered  and  associated  with 
coal,  it  formed  some  small  source  of  production  near  Mauch 
Chunk,  Penn.  A  darker  variety  was  mined  in  some  smaL 
quantities  containing  carbonaceous  material  and  called  black 
band  iron  ore,  but  it  was  not  worked  with  much  success  as 
to  quantity.  Some  of  the  latter  kind  of  ore  occurs  in  Ohio 
and  may  yet  be  found  elsewhere.  Black  band  is  used  very 
extensively  in  Scotland. 

These  ores  are  the  chief  sources  of  iron  in  the  United 
States,  and  it  is  to  them  that  the  practical  mineralogist  will 
turn  his  attention. 


132  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

It  is  seldom  necessary  to  bring  any  of  these  ores  before  the 
blowpipe,  except  it  be  the  argillaceous,  some  of  which  so  little 
resemble  iron  ore  as  usually  seen  that  there  may  be  sufficient 
reason  for  doubt  as  to  their  composition.  On  charcoal  any 
iron  ore  with  even  a  small  per  cent,  of  iron  may  with  the  I. 
F.  be  reduced  to  metallic  iron  and  by  means  of  the  magnet  be 
shown  to  be  iron.  This  is  especially  important  where  iron 
sulphide  (pyrite)  or  arsenical  iron  (mispickel)  is  to  be  tested. 
The  former  is  frequently  taken  for  gold  and  the  latter  for 
silver ;  the  blowpipe,  I.  F.,  detects  the  mistake  by  reduction 
to  metallic  iron  attractable  by  the  magnet. 

DRY  ASSAY  OF  IRON.  In  order  to  approximate  the  richness 
of  any  ore  of  iron  all  the  ores  may  be  treated  by  the  following 
method  called  dry  assay  : — 

Brasque  a  Hessian  crucible  (as  described  on  page  60)  of 
medium  size  and  introduce  a  weighed  portion  of  a  powdered 
ore.  Cover  it  with  charcoal  to  very  near  the  top,  introduce 
the  crucible  into  a  fire  after  the  crucible  has  been  gradually 
heated  previously  to  thoroughly  drying  it,  and  then  heat  to 
nearly  a  white  heat  for  about  half  an  hour ;  withdraw  the 
crucible,  let  it  cool,  and  empty  the  charcoal  upon  a  piece  of 
paper.  At  the  bottom  will  be  found  a  button  of  iron  with  the 
slag  attached  to  one  side ;  the  latter  easily  separates  and  then 
the  button  can  be  weighed  and  the  proportion  of  metal  to  ore 
be  approximately  determined. 

Cautions. — It  is  a  mistake  to  pulverize  the  ore  too  finely,  it 
causes  scattering  of  the  reduced  iron ;  the  size  of  the  powder 
should  be  about  that  of  small  pin-heads ;  judgment  must  be 
formed  upon  the  richness  of  the  ore,  lean  ores  should  be 
coarser.  Cover  the  crucible  with  a  piece  of  an  old  crucible  or 
fitted  piece  of  tile  resting  on  the  charcoal.  Be  sure  that  the 


IRON.  133 

heat  at  the  close  of  the  operation  is  near  white  heat  for  at 
least  ten  minutes  to  melt  the  button  together.  There  is  no 
use  in  breaking  a  brasqued  crucible,  it  is  safer  to  use  again  a 
crucible  which  has  been  used  successfully.  In  using  a  tiled 
cap  for  your  crucible  or  piece  of  brick  it  is  always  better  to 
rub  wet  charcoal  upon  its  edges  or  use  plumbago  to  prevent 
its  adherence  to  the  crucible.  In  testing  an  ore  it  is  always 
better  to  try  several  assays  and  note  the  variation  and  take 
the  average.  But  the  larger  the  button  the  more  accurate  the 
assay,  because  several  extraneous  additions  to  the  metal  make 
the  result  doubtful ;  first  there  is  a  certain  weight  due  to  car- 
bon which  must  be  subtracted  and  this  amount  may  vary 
from  about  four  per  cent,  to  less  than  one  ;  some  buttons  may 
contain  slightly  over  four  per  cent.,  but  we  have  frequently, 
by  keeping  the  heat  for  less  than  an  hour  only  to  a  medium 
red,  reduced  the  ore  to  a  nearly  malleable  wrought  iron  with 
practically  little  carbon,  and  it  can  be  heated  so  that  the  iron 
shall  contain  no  carbon.  In  a  brasqued  crucible  of  the 
largest  size  of  ordinary  nests,  a  button  weighing  two  or  even 
three  ounces  may  be  made,  and  if  broken  through  the  middle 
the  amount  of  carbon  may  be  guessed ;  the  dark,  rough  semi- 
crystalline,  porous  surface  represents  about  4.25  to  4.50  per 
cent.;  white  or  grayish-white,  smoother,  very  hard,  not 
granular  surface,  may  be  about  2.50  to  3  per  cent.,  and  it  is 
quite  possible  to  produce  a  button  closely  approximating  steel 
of  good  quality,  known  by  its  hardness  and  steely  grain,  con- 
taining about  1.5,  a  little  more  or  less,  according  to  treatment. 
With  a  little  practice  the  assayer  may  judge  of  the  heat,  also 
the  assay  quantity  of  ore  to  be  used,  the  time,  and  quality  of 
ore  to  make  an  assay  containing  very  nearly  the  kind  of  car- 
bon metal  he  wishes.  These  remarks  take  into  consideration 


134  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

nearly  pure  ore  and  the  use  of  the  same  ore  or  similar  ores  at 
each  trial. 

Ores  containing  sulphides,  arsenides,  or  selenium  should  be 
roasted  at  a  low  heat,  not  quite  to  red,  after  being  (in  smaller 
assays)  broken  down  to  the  size  of  shot. 

In  addition  to  what  we  have  already  said  we  should  state 
that  these  buttons  may  contain  other  impurities  as  phos- 
phorus, copper,  titanium,  manganese,  chromium,  and  fre- 
quently magnesium,  calcium,  and  silicon,  and  perhaps  some 
other  elements  which  only  the  wet  assay  may  wholly  elimi- 
nate. But  notwithstanding  all  these  impurities  the  metal 
produced  always  approximates  the  furnace  product  more 
nearly  than  even  the  wet  and  more  accurate  assay.  And 
therefore  it  is  very  useful. 

In  choosing  samples  for  experiments  from  the  ore  bed  the 
assayer  should  use  great  caution,  especially  if  by  this  assay 
he  is  to  judge  of  a  large  quantity,  or  of  the  entire  mine.  In 
choosing  a  sample  he  should,  if  possible,  visit  the  mine  or  ore 
heap  himself  and  select  from  both  the  smaller  pieces  and 
larger,  have  them  broken  down  together,  mixed  thoroughly 
to  the  amount  of  five  or  ten  pounds,  then  the  pile  quartered 
and  two  diagonally  opposite  quarters  taken  out  mixed  and 
still  further  broken  down  and  divided  in  the  same  way,  until 
the  whole  is  reduced  to  about  three  or  four  ounces,  which 
may  be  passed  through  a  silk  sieve  or  miller's  bolting  cloth 
of  40  to  the  inch.  The  whole  must  be  passed  through  en- 
tirely, as  silex  and  some  other  impurities,  being  hard,  remain 
until  the  last  sifting,  and  if  they  are  not  passed  through, 
they  materially  change  the  result  in  some  assays.  In  this 
condition  the  ore  may  be  kept  in  a  jar  for  future  use.  This 
size  is  good  for  dry  assay,  as  above  described. 


IRON.  135 

In  some  cases  where  much  quartz  is  associated  with  the  ore 
it  may  be  well  to  use  about  half  the  assay  weight  of  dry  lime, 
or  fluorspar ;  both  must  be  free  from  any  sulphate  or  sulphide 
(gypsum  or  pyrites).  These  unite  with  the  quartz  to  form  a 
flux  and  then  a  slag.  Where  the  ore  has  little  or  no  quartz, 
sand  or  pounded  glass  may  be  used  to  make  a  flux  with  the 
gangue  of  the  ore,  and  a  little  practice  will  enable  the  assayer 
to  judge  as  to  the  quantity  to  be  used.  In  this  case  also  a 
brasqued  crucible  should  be  used,  or  the  crucible  be  rubbed 
inside  thickly  with  plumbago.  If  the  reduction  is  performed 
in  an  anthracite  coal  furnace,  the  outside  of  the  crucible 
should  be  rubbed  well  with  plumbago  to  prevent  the  clinging 
of  pieces  of  slaty  coal  to  the  crucible ;  or  plumbago  (black 
lead)  crucibles  may  be  used. 

As  we  have  already  intimated,  the  metal  formed  by  dry 
assay  will  always  weigh  more  than  the  pure  iron,  because  of 
the  impurities  mentioned ;  but,  as  we  have  said,  it  is  very 
near  the  condition  of  the  cast-iron  from  the  same  ore  in  the 
blast  furnace,  and  these  buttons  may  be  subjected  to  the  wet 
method  of  determination  of  other  ingredients  or  elements  as 
found  in  the  button. 

THE  WET  METHOD  enables  the  assayer  to  determine  not  only 
the  iron,  but  every  other  element  in  the  ore.  When,  how- 
ever, the  element  sought  is  only  iron,  the  following  plan  may 
be  pursued  : — 

Reduce  the  ore,  as  before  spoken  of,  to  a  finer  powder, 
using  a  bolting  cloth  of  80  to  the  inch,  passing  about  a 
gramme  (15.43  grains)  entirely  through.  Weigh,  and  then 
heat  in  a  porcelain  crucible  to  a  low  red  over  the  blast  alco- 
holic lamp,  or  Bunsen  burner.  When  no  reduction  of  weight 
is  observed,  weigh,  subtract  this  weight  from  the  first  weight 


136  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

and  you  have  the  amount  of  water  in  the  ore,  both  the  me- 
chanically combined  and  the  chemically  combined  water. 
Transfer  the  assay  to  your  beaker  glass — the  size  of  the  beaker 
glass  should  be  about  7  by  3  inches,  or  larger — pour  upon  the 
assay  about  an  ounce  of  muriatic  acid  (hydrochloric  acid 
HC1)  and  digest  with  low  heat  till  the  ore  disappears  in  the 
solution,  stir  with  a  glass  rod,  or  narrow  slip  of  glass,  or 
platinum  wire,  and  add  a  little  nitric  acid  (25  or  30  drops), 
and  after  solution  is  fully  effected,  add  about  four  or  five 
ounces  water,  stir,  now  add  slowly  aqua  ammonia  till  a  pre- 
cipitate begins,  stir  again  and  add  more  ammonia  till  appar- 
ently no  additional  precipitate  appears.  If  the  solution 
smells  of  ammonia,  stop,  stir  with  the  glass  rod  and  let  it 
settle.  This  precipitate  now  contains  all  the  iron  in  the  con- 
dition of  sesquioxide.  In  a  few  minutes  it  will  settle  towards 
the  bottom  of  the  beaker.  But  the  precipitate  contains  also 
all  the  alumina  of  the  ore,  if  there  was  any,  but  it  is  quite 
soluble  in  caustic  potash.  Add  now  a  piece  of  a  stick  of 
caustic  potash  about  one  inch  and  a  half  in  length  while  the 
solution  is  quite  warm ;  if  any  hissing  or  commotion  takes 
place,  as  is  usual,  wait  till  all  is  dissolved  and  heat  and  stir 
for  about  ten  minutes  till  the  solution  is  a  little  below  boiling 
point,  stop  and  let  the  temperature  remain  the  same.  You 
have  now  probably  dissolved  all  the  alumina,  and  the  sesqui- 
oxide, undissolved,  is  precipitated  in  the  solution.  Let  all 
stand  till  nearly  cool,  giving  ample  time  for  any  floating  ses- 
quioxide to  settle.  Some  specks  will  hold  up  because  of  a 
minute  bubble  of  air,  but  cooling  will  collapse  them  and  they 
may  all  sink.  If  not,  touch  them  with  the  rod.  Now  if  only 
iron  is  to  be  ascertained,  prepare  your  filter  paper  upon  the 
glass  funnel  over  another  beaker,  stir  the  solution  and  slowly 


IRON.  137 

pour  it  out  upon  the  filter  paper  until  the  whole  has  passed 
through.  Add  some  more  warm  water  from  your  washing 
("  spritz  ")  bottle,  till  all  of  the  assay  is  out  of  the  beaker  and 
upon  the  filter.  Now  comes  the  washing  of  the  soft  sesqui- 
oxide.  Use  the  spritz  to  stir  up  the  precipitate  by  blowing  the 
stream  on  the  filter  paper  around  the  mass,  then  into  it,  let  it 
settle,  dose  it  again,  and  after  you  have  passed  about  a  pint  of 
hot  water  upon  it,  lift  the  funnel  off  the  beaker  and  let  six  or 
eight  drops  of  the  solution  fall  into  a  small  test  tube,  replace 
the  funnel  over  the  beaker  and  let  fall  one  drop,  or  less, 
of  silver  nitrate  into  the  test  tube.  If  there  yet  remains  a 
trace  of  hydrochloric  acid,  a  milky  appearance  (silver  chlo- 
ride) is  seen.  Continue  the  washing  for  a  time,  which  must 
be  according  to  the  density  of  the  milky  precipitate,  or  until, 
on  again  testing,  no  milkiness  appears.  Put  the  funnel  with 
filter  aside  covered  from  dust,  and  let  it  dry.  It  will  shrink 
to  less  than  one-quarter  of  its  size.  When  dry  it  is  easily  de- 
tached from  the  filter  paper,  and  may  then  be  transferred 
to  the  porcelain  cup,  or  platinum  crucible,  for  heating  till  all 
water  is  driven  off;  this  requires  a  low  red  heat  continued 
till  no  decrease  of  weight  is  perceptible.  If  great  accuracy 
is  required,  and  every  particle  and  even  iron  stain  cannot 
be  removed  from  the  filter  paper,  then  the  filter  paper  must 
be  burned,  as  we  have  already  described,  but  more  par- 
ticularly again.  After  the  mass  and  all  particles  have  been 
removed  from  the  assay  paper,  the  paper  itself  must  be 
rolled  up,  or  torn  in  pieces  carefully  so  as  to  lose  nothing, 
and  burned  to  ashes  in  the  crucible  either  with  the  oxi- 
dizing flame  of  the  blowpipe,  or  better  over  the  alcoholic 
blast  lamp,  till  every  particle  becomes  a  white  ash  and  no 
carbon  specks  remain.  Cool  it  and  weigh.  Subtract  the 


138  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

former  noted  weight  of  that  paper's  ash  from  the  latter 
weight  of  the  burned  filter  ash  and  sesquioxide,  and  you 
have  the  amount  of  only  that  sesquioxide  which  adhered 
to  the  filter  paper.  This  weight  must  be  added  to  the 
weight  of  the  mass,  and  you  have  then  almost  accurately 
the  whole  amount  of  sesquioxide,  every  100  parts  of  which 
contain  70  parts  of  pure  iron,  if  it  is  in  a  state  of  purity. 
We  say  "  almost  accurately,"  for  the  sesquioxide  very  proba- 
bly, despite  the  washing,  holds  a  little  of  the  potash.  But 
where  extreme  accuracy  is  not  necessary  the  potash  may 
be  very  nearly  washed  out  by  using  boiling  hot  water,  long 
continued,  until  no  residue  appears  upon  a  bright  strip  of 
platinum,  or  silver,  after  evaporating  upon  it,  in  a  flame,  a 
drop  of  the  filtrate. 

The  precipitate  (sesquioxide)  may  be  separated  from  the 
potash  much  more  readily,  after  a  little  washing  with  nearly 
boiling  water,  by  re-dissolving  upon  the  filter,  by  hydro- 
chloric acid  dropped  upon  it,  and  after  all  has  passed 
through,  precipitating  by  ammonia  again,  the  solution  being 
made  hot,  and  washing.  Time  is  saved  by  this  process. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  wash  all  the  dissolved  sesquioxide 
through  the  filter  before  precipitating  with  ammonia,  The 
sesquioxide  is  now  ready  (see  below)  for  extracting  phos- 
phorus. 

If,  however,  you  wish  corroborative  proof  and  accuracy, 
with  less  washing,  Wohler's  method  is  the  best,  namely : 
Neutralize  the  dilute  solution  of  the  ore  (before  precipita- 
tion by  ammonia)  with  carbonate  of  sodium,  add  to  it  hypo- 
sulphite of  sodium,  and  boil  until  sulphurous  acid  ceases 
to  be  evolved,  that  is,  until  it  cannot  be  detected  by  the 
smell.  The  alumina  collects  as  a  quite  dense  precipitate, 


IRON.  139 

which  only  needs  to  be  filtered,  washed,  calcined  by  red 
heat  and  weighed.  If  properly  performed,  the  alumina 
must  be  white,  entirely.  To  the  solution,  after  a  little  con- 
centration by  evaporation,  add  potassium  chlorate  (a  gramme 
or  more),  and  hydrochloric  acid,  filter  to  separate  some  par- 
ticles of  free  sulphur,  and  then  precipitate  the  iron  sesqui- 
oxide  by  ammonia,  just  as  before.  The  weight  of  the 
alumina  may  now  be  ascertained. 

FOR  PHOSPHORUS.  The  iron  sesquioxide  may  contain  this 
element,  and  as  its  amount  is  a  fact  to  be  studied  in  iron 
metallurgy,  we  must  examine  the  sesquioxide  carefully, 
thus :  The  sesquioxide  remaining  upon  the  filter,  as  spoken 
of  in  the  second  paragraph  above,  or  any  peroxide  precipi- 
tated by  ammonia  from  a  hot  solution,  contains  the  phos- 
phorus. The  following  method  is  the  best  for  its  determi- 
nation :  Dissolve  the  finely  pulverized  ore  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  adding  15  or  20  drops  of  nitric  acid  to  reduce  all 
protoxide  to  sesquioxide  (peroxide),  then  heat  the  solution, 
using  as  little  acid  as  possible  beyond  the  quantity  necessary 
for  dissolving  the  ore. 

Note :  If  all  the  ore  is  not  dissolved  at  first,  then  con- 
tinue heating  and  agitating  with  a  glass  rod ;  if  not  yet 
soluble,  then  either  separate  the  insoluble  particles  by  filtra- 
tion, triturate,  heat  with  caustic  soda  and  dissolve  again, 
or  begin  with  a  new  supply  of  ore  (a  gramme),  and  after 
putting  the  very  finely  triturated  ore  into  a  platinum  cru- 
cible, add  4  to  5  grammes  of  caustic  soda,  or  potash,  or 
the  sodic-potassium  (see  page  42),  heat  slowly  to  red  heat, 
moderating  the  heat  till  all  effervescence  ceases,  then  in- 
creasing the  heat  and  continuing  till  all  is  dissolved  and 
is  tranquil,  remove  the  crucible,  cool  it  on  a  cold  plate 


140  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

rapidly,  and  place  it  in  a  porcelain  dish  containing  water 
sufficient  to  cover  it.  Add  a  few  drops  of  hydrochloric  acid 
and  heat  the  dish,  and  continue  adding  hydrochloric  acid 
till  all  is  dissolved.  After  this,  wash  out  the  platinum 
crucible,  that  is,  rinse  out  all  its  contents  in  order  that 
nothing  be  lost  and  evaporate  the  liquid  to  dryness.  This 
last  process  renders  all  the  soluble  silica  insoluble  even  in 
the  hydrochloric  acid  with  its  little  water  which  may  be 
added  and  the  whole  now  thrown  upon  a  filter  paper, 
filtered  and  washed ;  the  silica  remains  in  the  filter  and 
the  iron  with  its  phosphorus  passes  through  into  the  filtrate. 
Wash  the  white  silica,  well  so  that  no  cloudiness  appears  in 
the  filtrate  when  tested  with  silver  nitrate,  as  we  have  before 
described,  and  this  filter  paper  may  be  removed  to  dry, 
and  its  silica  weighed  when  ready,  and  the  filter  burned  as 
we  have  shown  where  great  accuracy  is  required. 

Remove  the  alumina,  as  before  directed,  precipitating  the 
peroxide  which  is  now  clear  of  silica  and  alumina,  and  you 
are  ready  to  remove  the  phosphorus.  With  proper  care,  as 
we  shall  direct,  the  molybdate  of  ammonium  is  the  reagent 
to  be  used.  An  aqueous  solution  of  this  reagent  is  to  be 
preferred  to  that  in  nitric  acid  (see  under  Reagents),  com- 
monly employed.  Its  strength  is  but  from  50  to  60  grammes 
to  the  litre  (1.7  pint)  of  water.  Phosphorus  is  not  precipi- 
tated by  this  reagent  from  neutral  solutions,  and  on  the 
other  hand  strongly  acid  solutions  retard,  or  even  resist  pre- 
cipitation. 

Parry's  method,  the  accuracy  and  value  of  which  Mallet 
has  proved,  is  as  follows :  Add  ammonia  to  the  solution  un- 
til a  complete  precipitation  occurs  of  peroxide  of  iron.  Add 
cautiously  as  much  nitric  acid  as  is  just  sufficient  to  redis- 


IRON.  141 

solve  the  precipitated  peroxide.  Bring  the  solution  to  boil 
and  add  the  molybdate  of  ammonia  in  the  proportion  of 
about  30  cubic  centimetres  to  the  quarter  litre  of  iron  solu- 
tion (i.  e.,  about  14  fluidounces  to  8J  ounces)  or  a  little 
more  if  it  be  rich  in  phosphorus.  The  usual  yellow  precipi- 
tate may  appear  immediately,  but  if  not,  boil  briskly  again 
for  a  few  minutes,  add  a  very  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  and 
shake  the  closed  flask  vigorously  at  intervals,  and  continue 
to  add  a  drop  or  two  more  of  nitric  acid  until  a  distinct 
precipitate  is  observed  to  commence.  The  ebullition  must 
now  be  stopped  or  a  bulky  flocculent  precipitate  will  rapidly 
form ;  but  the  flask  should  be  kept  hot  and  as  near  to  the 
boiling-point  as  possible  (without  actual  boiling),  and  shaken 
briskly  now  and  then.  In  from  an  hour  or  two  to  four  or 
five  hours  the  whole  of  the  phosphorus  will  usually  have 
precipitated  in  a  good  granular  form.  If  these  details  be 
fully  observed,  it  is  seldom  necessary  to  repeat  the  process 
in  order  to  obtain  the  whole  of  the  phosphorus  present. 
The  yellow  precipitate  separated  by  filtration,  washed  with 
water  and  molybdic  solution  (equal  volumes),  is  redissolved 
afterwards  on  the  filter  with  the  aid  of  ammonia.  Pour 
into  this  ammoniacal  solution  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesium, which  precipitates  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  ordi- 
nary form  of  double  phosphate  of  ammonium  and  mag- 
nesium. The  precipitate  is  thrown  on  a  filter,  washed  with 
cold  water  containing  a  third  of  its  volume  of  ammonia, 
then  dried,  calcined,  and  weighed,  as  Mg2P207  or  2MgOP205. 
In  calcining  (with  red  heat)  it  loses  ammonia  and  water. 
In  this  precipitate  phosphorus  is  27.92  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  and  the  P205  (phosphoric  acid)  63.96  per  cent.  (See 
p.  26.) 


142  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Care  must  be  taken  not  to  calcine  the  phosphate  too 
rapidly,  else  it  will  not  have  time  to  oxidize  the  carbon 
particles  which  may  have  fallen  into  it  from  the  filter  paper 
or  from  some  other  source,  and  the  mass  may  be  dark.  To 
avoid  this,  raise  the  temperature  slowly  to  redness ;  in  this 
way  the  precipitate  becomes  pulverulent,  and  the  organic 
matters  are  completely  burned  away. 

In  these  processes  we  have  separated  from  the  iron  and 
determined  the  elements  alumina,  silica,  and  phosphorus. 
The  peroxide  of  iron  may  be  precipitated  as  before,  or  it 
may  now  be  determined  from  a  fresh  amount  of  ore  of  same 
weight  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  the  peroxide  of  iron 
and  the  alumina  precipitated  by  ammonia  in  excess,  heated, 
and  the  precipitate  washed,  dried,  and  calcined.  The  weight 
of  the  alumina,  silica,  and  phosphoric  acid  subtracted  from 
the  precipitated  sesquioxide  leaves  the  weight  of  the  pure 
sesquioxide.  The  pure  iron  may  now  be  deduced  thus : 
Fe203  (sesquioxide  anhydrous)  112  -f  48  =  160,  that  is,  every 
160  parts  contain  112  of  iron,  or  70  per  cent.  The  various 
weights  of  assays  must  in  their  sum  equal  the  original  weight 
of  the  assay,  or  we  must  look  for  other  elements. 

In  the  filtrate  from  the  iron  and  alumina  may  remain 
lime  and  magnesia.  The  lime  may  be  precipitated  by 
oxalate  of  ammonium  added  in  excess,  after  warming  the 
solution,  and  allowing  it  to  stand  for  ten  or  twelve  hours. 
If  any  adhere  to  the  glass,  drop  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid 
upon  it  and  precipitate  it  again  with  the  ammonium  oxalate 
and  add  it  to  the  other.  Instead  of  filtering,  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult, the  supernatant  liquid  may  be  decanted  until  near 
the  precipitate,  and  the  latter  then  thrown  upon  a  filter 
previously  wetted  with  a  little  water  and  alcohol  to  facil- 


IRON.  143 

itate  filtration  without  loss,  and  washed  with  warm  water. 
Dry  and  calcine  slowly  to  a  red  heat  and  keep  it  at  this 
heat  until  changed  from  oxalate  of  lime  to  carbonate  and 
then  to  caustic  lime  from  which  all  the  carbonic  acid  (C02, 
carbonic  dioxide)  has  been  driven  off.  It  can  then  be 
weighed  as  lime  (CaO).  It  is  well  to  try  this  lime  in  the 
porcelain  or  platinum  crucible  by  dropping  a  little  hydro- 
chloric acid  upon  it  after  adding  a  drop  or  two  of  water. 

If  there  is  no  C02,  there  will  be  no  effervescence  ;  if  there 
is,  then  the  reduction  of  the  ammonium  oxalate  to  lime  was 
not  well  done.  You  must  now  add  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid,  evaporate  with  care  to  dryness,  calcine  at  a  low  heat, 
and  after  cooling  weigh,  and  from  the  sulphate  of  lime  thus 
formed  (CaOS04)  the  lime  may  be  determined,  being  41.17 
per  cent.  The  magnesia  still  remains  in  the  solution  and 
this  may  be  determined  by  adding  ammonia  in  excess,  then 
a  solution  of  phosphate  of  sodium  also  in  excess,  set  aside  for 
12  to  24  hours.  After  this  filter,  washing  with  cold  water 
containing  one-quarter  to  one-third  of  ammonia,  dry,  calcine 
to  low  red  heat,  cool,  and  weigh,  36.03  per  cent,  of  which  is 
MgO  =  magnesia. 

Cautions. — To  the  inexperienced  it  may  be  necessary  to  use 
test  papers  to  determine  the  alkaline,  or  acid,  condition  of 
assays.  The  preparation  of  these  we  have  described  in  the 
beginning  of  this  part  of  the  work  (p.  46).  But  a  little 
practice  will  decide ;  ammonia  in  excess  may  be  known  by 
the  smell,  even  when  the  excess  is  small.  Always  stir  a 
solution  immediately  before  testing.  So  with  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  and  ammoniacal  sulphides  when  used  and  elim- 
inated by  boiling,  their  presence  or  absence  may  be  tested  by 
the  smell.  In  stirring  solutions  learn  to  stir  without  much 


144  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

striking  the  sides ;  some  testing,  as  for  magnesia,  requires 
care  not  to  scratch  or  even  touch  the  glass,  but  where  the 
amount  of  magnesia  is  small  the  precipitation  may  be  pro- 
moted by  drawing  the  glass  rod  over  the  inside  of  the  glass, 
in  contact  but  not  by  scratching. 

In  precipitating  lime,  when  it  bears  a  small  proportion  to 
that  of  the  magnesia  present,  the  assay  for  lime  must  be  par- 
ticularly careful,  for  it  goes  down  in  part,  and  if  very  small, 
wholly  with  the  magnesia.  So  if  this  condition  is  suspected 
both  the  lime  and  magnesia  must  be  converted  into  sulphates, 
as  we  have  explained  when  the  assayer  has  failed  to  reduce 
the  oxalate  to  lime,  but  has  injured  his  assay  by  not  suffi- 
ciently calcining.  In  the  assay  the  lime  sulphate  is  not 
soluble  in  alcohol,  while  the  magnesia  sulphate  is,  and  so  the 
two  may  be  separated  and  the  magnesia  be  afterward  pre- 
cipitated. 

FOR  SULPHUR.  The  ore  may  yet  contain  S  from  some  sul- 
phide of  iron,  of  barium,  of  lime  or  of  copper,  but  generally 
as  sulphide  of  iron.  As  sulphur  is  important  in  its  influence 
upon  the  wrought  iron  produced,  it  is  important  to  be  exact 
in  the  analyses  for  this  element,  and  it  had  better  be  deter- 
mined from  a  freshly-made  solution  of  ore. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  to  ascertain  the  sulphur  in  the 
ore,  whether  brown  or  red  hematite  or  magnetite,  is  finely  to 
pulverize  the  ore,  sift  (80  to  the  inch),  dry  and  mixed  with 
four  or  five  times  its  weight  of  caustic  potash,  or  soda,  or  a 
mixture  of  both  (see  Reagents),  place  in  the  platinum  cruci- 
ble, begin  heating  slowly  and  increase  the  heat  to  red  as  the 
effervescence  ceases,  until  a  tranquil  fusion  is  effected.  Time 
will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  ore  and  the  fineness  to 
which  it  was  reduced.  During  the  fusion  carefully  add  about 


IRON.  145 

twice  its  weight  (of  the  ore)  of  nitrate  of  potassium  (dry  and 
in  small  pieces).  The  better  way  is  to  mix  carbonate  of  soda 
10  parts  and  carbonate  of  potassium  14  parts,  and  of  this 
mixture  take  4  times  the  weight  of  the  ore  to  be  assayed ;  add 
twice  the  weight  of  the  ore,  of  nitrate  of  potassium  all  dry, 
and  when  the  ore  is  being  heated  in  the  platinum  crucible, 
add,  by  degrees,  the  powder  until  all  has  been  added  and  all 
is  in  tranquil  fusion.  Let  it  cool,  and  treat  with  hydrochloric 
acid  till  all  is  completely  dissolved,  evaporate  to  dryness  for 
silicic  acid  (as  we  have  already  described)  and  to  decompose 
the  nitrate.  The  residuum  is  now  to  be  moistened  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  afterward  treated  with  hot  water, 
filtered,  and  thus  the  silicic  acid  separated ;  the  solution 
should  be  perfectly  clear.  We  are  now  ready  to  precipitate 
the  sulphur  as  sulphate  of  barium,  but  it  must  be  done  care- 
fully by  adding  in  small  quantities  chloride  of  barium.  If 
the  ore  contained  iron  pyrites,  it  is  always  better  to  add  a 
weaker  solution  of  the  barium  chloride  in  order  not  to  make 
too  dense  a  precipitate. 

If  the  ore  contains  calcium  sulphate  or  iron  sulphate 
(gypsum  or  native  copperas,  so  called)  it  must  first  be  boiled 
in  water,  filtered,  and  what  is  soluble  be  treated  until  all  the 
sulphur  is  determined  by  the  chloride  of  barium,  and  after- 
ward treat  the  insoluble  residue  as  described  above. 

Caution. — The  barytic  sulphate  thus  produced  may  retain 
some  of  the  alkaline  salts  used,  and  this  has  sometimes  made 
an  error  in  excess  in  the  assayer's  analysis  for  sulphur. 
Stolba  (so  Mallet)  says  it  is  better  after  the  filtrate  comes 
away,  apparently  free  from  barytic  sulphate,  to  place  all  the 
latter  in  another  beaker  and  release  it  by  rewashing  after 
treating  it  in  a  small  beaker  with  a  solution  of  neutral  ace- 
10 


146  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

tate  of  copper  with  some  acetic  acid  added,  and  then  digest- 
ing it  at  a  boiling  heat.  After  about  five  minutes'  heating, 
throw  it  again  upon  the  filter,  and  filter,  and  wash  anew. 
Thus  the  sulphur  may  be  very  closely  found  after  careful 
drying  and  calcining  the  sulphate  at  low  red.  The  per  cent, 
of  sulphur  in  barium  sulphate  is  13.73. 

The  above  elements,  silica,  alumina,  lime,  magnesia,  phos- 
phorus, and  sulphur  are  all  which  occur  as  the  general 
accompaniments  in  the  brown  hematite  ores,  very  rarely 
barium,  but  in  some  ores  manganese  forms  a  very  important 
part,  and  it  is  well  to  become  acquainted  with  the  process  of 
determining  this  element. 

MANGANESE.  After  the  reactions  with  the  blowpipe,  one 
of  which  we  have  sufficiently  pointed  out  in  the  beginning  of 
this  part  (p.  17),  and  a  better  one  under  MANGANESE,  indicate 
the  presence  of  this  element,  we  proceed  to  determine  its 
quantity  as  follows  : — 

The  shortest  way  is  to  use  carbonate  of  barium.  The 
solution  of  the  ore  is  saturated  with  carbonate  of  sodium, 
testing  the  solution  with  litmus  paper  until  very  little  free 
acid  shows  itself.  Then  add  an  excess  of  carbonate  of 
barium,  stir  well  and  let  it  act  cold  for  about  half  an  hour, 
stirring  the  liquid  frequently.  Separate  the  precipitate  by 
filtration.  This  contains  the  peroxide  of  iron,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  alumina,  combined  with  some  of  the  carbonate  of 
barium.  Wash  with  cold  water,  and  the  filtered  liquid  con- 
tains the  manganese,  lime,  magnesia,  and  a  salt  of  barium. 
The  precipitate  may  be  proceeded  with  as  we  have  before 
directed  to  obtain  iron,  alumina,  and  phosphoric  acid,  the 
only  additional  care  being  to  get  rid  of  the  barium.  This 
must  be  done  by  redissolving  the  precipitate  over  a  new 


IRON.  147 

beaker  separately  with  hydrochloric  acid,  washing  all 
through,  arid  precipitating  the  barium  with  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  and  separating  by  filtration.  You  are  now  ready  to 
precipitate  as  before  with  ammonia,  collect  the  nitrate,  and 
proceed  as  we  have  shown.  Use  Wohler's  process  as  always 
preferable  to  the  usually  adopted  method  of  using  caustic 
potash  to  separate  the  alumina,  unless  it  is  not  necessary  to 
be  extremely  accurate.  We  have  described  this  already. 
If  you  have  room  enough  in  the  same  beaker,  a  new  one 
need  not  be  used,  but  the  precipitate  dissolved  with  hydro- 
chloric acid  a  little  diluted  and  run  off,  using  the  same  filter 
and  beaker,  washed  with  warm  water  slightly  acidulated 
with  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  filtrate,  thus  diluted,  boiled 
and  then  the  barium  precipitated  by  sulphuric  acid  diluted. 
Let  the  solution  stand  until  all  is  settled,  separate  the  barium 
sulphate  by  filtration,  and  then,  as  we  have  already  shown, 
precipitate  the  peroxide,  alumina,  and  the  accompanying 
phosphoric  acid  by  ammonia,  filter,  wash,  and  proceed  for 
alumina  and  phosphoric  acid  as  we  have  directed. 

The  clear,  colorless  liquid  which  contains  the  manganese, 
lime,  and  magnesia  must  be  poured  into  a  matrass  and 
heated  slightly.  The  liquid  now  contains  chloride  of  am- 
monium from  the  use  of  both  hydrochloric  acid  and  the 
ammonia  to  precipitate  the  peroxides  ;  this  condition  is  neces- 
sary in  order  to  proceed  for  the  manganese.  Add  hydrosul- 
phide  of  ammonium  to  precipitate  the  manganese.  If  the 
iron  has  been  previously  carefully  and  entirely  precipitated, 
the  precipitate  will  be  of  a  very  clear  rose  color ;  any  grayish 
or  black  color  will  show  that  some  lack  of  care  has  pre- 
existed and  iron  remains.  After  twelve  hours'  rest,  the 
matrass  being  either  corked  or  covered  with  a  watch  crystal, 


148  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  hydrated  sulphuret  of  manganese  will  be  entirely  pre- 
cipitated. After  some  time  the  color  may  change  to  a 
greenish  tint,  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hydrated  sulphuret  of 
manganese  loses  a  little  water  of  hydration,  but  this  is  imma- 
terial. The  precipitate  may  now  be  filtered  with  some  care, 
thus :  Filter  off  the  liquid  from  the  precipitate  and  add  the 
latter  to  a  solution  of  chloride  of  ammonium  in  another 
vessel,  to  which  some  drops  of  the  hydrosulphide  have  been 
added,  let  it  settle,  and  then  decant  the  whole  upon  the 
same  filter  and  add  this  solution  to  that  first  made.  If 
there  are  any  signs  of  remaining  sulphuret  of  Mn  in  the 
solution,  run  it  through  again.  Now  wash  the  precipitate 
with  distilled  water  containing  a  little  both  of  the  hydrosul- 
phide and  of  the  chloride  of  ammonium,  and  as  the  washing 
proceeds  diminish  the  quantity  of  chloride  of  ammonium, 
and  toward  the  close  omit  it  entirely.  The  danger  exists  in 
the  change  of  sulphuret  of  manganese  into  protosulphate ; 
the  latter  being  soluble  may  pass  over  into  the  filtrate. 
Hence  the  use  of  the  hydrosulphide  to  prevent  this  change, 
but  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  filter  full  and  thus 
protect  the  precipitate  from  contact  with  the  air  as  much  as 
possible. 

The  first  of  the  filtrate  may  be  somewhat  turbid  ;  if  so, 
filter  for  awhile  and  throw  back  this  turbid  filtrate  when 
the  liquor  flows  clear.  The  precipitate  may  now  either  be 
washed,  dried,  and  calcined,  protected  from  the  atmosphere 
as  much  as  possible  and  weighed,  or  more  accurately  thus : 
Treat  the  precipitate  and  filter  with  hydrochloric  acid  some- 
what diluted,  avoiding  excess  beyond  that  necessary  fully  to 
dissolve  the  precipitate.  The  sulphuret  of  manganese  is 
now  changed  into  the  soluble  chloride  and  hydrosulphuric 


IRON.  149 

acid  gas  is  given  off.  Heat  the  solution  till  the  passage  of 
hydrosulphuric  acid  gas  ceases  and  filter  to  get  rid  of  all 
particles  which  may  be  floating  in  the  liquor.  Boil  the 
solution  and  add  very  cautiously,  a  little  at  a  time,  carbonate 
of  sodium  (lest  too  much  effervescence  causes  loss),  until  the 
solution  shows  slight  alkaline  reaction  (using  reddened  litmus 
paper  for  this  purpose).  The  precipitate  now  is  protocarbon- 
ate  of  manganese.  Wash  several  times  by  decantation,  filling 
the  jar  or  beaker  with  hot  water,  letting  the  precipitate  settle, 
and  pouring  off.  Then  throw  it  upon  a  filter,  passing  all 
through,  and  continue  the  washing  till  a  polished  platinum 
strip  shows  no  residue.  Dry  and  calcine  strongly,  as  in 
reducing  carbonate  of  lime  to  lime,  in  contact  with  the  air 
and  weigh  ;  every  hundred  parts  contain  72.05  parts  man- 
ganese, that  is,  of  the  resulting  Mn304,  72.5  per  cent,  is  man- 
ganese. 

The  solution  may  now  be  heated  to  boiling  and  the  hy- 
drosulphide  of  ammonium  completely  decomposed  by  adding 
hydrochloric  acid  slowly  until  no  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
remains ;  this  may  be  known  by  the  absence  of  all  smell. 
Filter  to  separate  the  deposited  sulphur,  neutralize  with  am- 
monia, and  proceed  to  separate  lime  and  magnesia  as  already 
directed. 

SPATHIC  ORE,  or  ore  containing  carbonic  dioxide,  C02,  as 
iron  carbonate.  The  determination  of  CO2  is  the  •  same  as 
in  marble  or  any  lime  carbonate  and  is  made  by  using  a 
small  glass  instrument,  formerly  called  Kipp's  apparatus,  of 
the  following  form  (Fig.  5).  Into  B  put  the  carbonate, 
powdered,  dried,  and  weighed,  through  the  hole  at  D ;  add  a 
little  water.  Into  A  hydrochloric  acid  is  poured  through  (7, 
after  fixing  the  glass  stopper  tube  in  its  place,  till  A  is  nearly 


150  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

full.  Wipe  dry  and  weigh  the  whole.  Draw  the  tube  D  out 
through  the  cork  so  far  that  the  lower  end  will  not  come  in 
contact  with  the  carbonate  when  the  latter  effervesces ;  now 
draw  the  tube  C  up  a  little  so  as  to  drop  a  few 
drops  of  the  acid  upon  the  carbonate  and  let  the 
effervescence  subside ;  then  drop  some  drops 
again  and  repeat  this  process  until  all  effer- 
vescence ceases  to  come  off.  Draw  out  the 
cork  at  D  and  with  a  perfectly  dry  glass  tube 
blow  gently  into  B  through  the  open  hole  until 
all  C02  has  been  driven  out,  and  if  the  vessel  is 
warm  from  the  action  of  the  acid  upon  the  carbonate,  let  it 
stand  till  as  cool  as  when  the  acid  was  poured  in.  Now 
weigh  the  whole  again.  It  will  weigh  less  than  before ;  sub- 
tract the  latter  from  the  former  weight  and  the  weight  of  the 
C02  will  be  had  as  that  of  the  carbonic  dioxide  (C02)  of  the 
iron  carbonate  weighed  at  first,  and  this  will  be  nearly  ac- 
curate ;  the  only  inaccuracy  will  result  from  carelessness  and 
the  loss  of  moisture  escaping  through  the  tube  at  D.  The 
latter  may  be  provided  against  by  having  a  short  glass  tube 
with  a  cork  tightly  fixed  in  one  end  with  a  hole  sufficiently 
large  to  admit  the  end  of  the  small  tube  at  D.  When  all 
things  are  ready  and  just  before  weighing  fill  this  larger  tube 
with  some  small  pieces,  the  size  of  about  one-eighth  or  one- 
fourth  inch  diameter,  of  calcium  chloride.  The  escaping  gas 
will  leave  its  moisture  in  the  salt  and  the  dry  gas  only  will 
escape ;  the  upper  end  of  the  short  tube  may  have  a  piece  of 
cork  cut  to  fit  in  loosely  so  as  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape  and 
yet  not  allow  much  contact  with  the  outside  air. 

In  the  use  of  this  carbonic  dioxide  apparatus,  some  ex- 
perience, care,  and  skill  are  required,  and  the  student  should, 


IRON.  151 

for  his  own  practice,  try  this  C02  determination  at  least  three 
or  four  times,  before  feeling  that  he  is  competent  to  use  the 
apparatus. 

Several  other  shapes  and  sizes  of  carbonic  dioxide  appara- 
tuses are  offered,  but,  as  skill  in  the  operator  is  the  chiei 
matter,  there  is  none  superior  to  the  last  mentioned,  in  the 
hands  of  the  careful  manipulator ;  in  fact  with  two  of  the 
smallest  beaker  glasses,  usually  found  in  a  "  nest,"  a  prac- 
tised analyst  may  make  a  very  good  analysis  of  C02  by  plac- 
ing the  weighed  carbonate  with  water  in  one  beaker,  the  acid 
in  the  other,  and  weighing  the  two  glasses,  treating  them  as 
above  suggested,  weighing  again  and  subtracting  the  latter 
from  the  former  weight.  But  this  last  process  is  not  so  con- 
venient as  with  the  single  instrument. 

The  Kipps,  and  any  other  apparatus  of  this  kind,  may  be 
had  at  any  chemist's  wareroom. 

TITANIC  ACID.  Immense  quantities  of  a  dark-colored  iron 
sand  are  found  in  Nova  Scotia,  and,  a  few  years  ago,  on  Hon- 
duras Bay,  and  more  recently  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  Territories.  This  sand  contains  iron  and  titanic 
acid.  It  has  also  occurred  in  some  magnetite  ore  in  New 
Jersey  in  very  small  per  cent.,  and  yet  so  as  to  show  itself  in 
the  furnace  slags  on  the  Lehigh,  and  wherever  titaniferous 
iron  ores  are  smelted,  but  the  furnace  products  do  not  appear 
to  be  TiO2,  but  TiCy23Ti3N2.  As  a  mineral  it  is  called  rutile, 
which  contains  sometimes  over  98  per  cent,  of  titanic  acid 
(Ti02).  The  iron  sand  sometimes  possesses  as  much  as  40 
per  cent.  Some  ores  contain  less  than  3  per  cent,  and  can 
then  be  used  in  the  furnace,  but  any  per  cent,  over  that 
amount  causes  the  ores  to  be  rejected,  although  in  wrought 
iron  made  from  such  ores  the  effect  is  to  strengthen  the  iron, 


152  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

and  in  certain  proportions  its  action  is  to  make  a  steely  iron. 
The  difficulty  as  to  the  use  of  these  ores  in  the  furnaces  is 
that  the  associated  lime  and  coal  (flux  and  fuel),  called 
"  charges,"  must  be  somewhat  modified  to  keep  up  the  same 
grade  of  pig-iron. 

Under  the  blowpipe,  titanic  acid,  even  though  combined 
with  iron,  may  be  detected  by  treating  a  small  particle  first 
in  a  bead  of  phosphate  of  soda  in  which  no  color  appears 
except  from  the  iron  in  the  R.  F.,  but  after  treating  the  bead 
with  metallic  tin  upon  charcoal  a  violet  color  appears  more 
or  less  apparent  according  to  the  amount  of  titanium.  TiO2 
is  not  soluble  in  acids,  but  may  be  made  soluble  by  heating 
to  fusion  with  caustic  alkalies,  or  their  carbonates.  An  ex- 
cess of  acid  is  then  added,  and  with  the  addition  of  tin  foil  it 
gives  a  decided  violet  color,  especially  when  concentrated. 

To  extract  Ti02  from  the  iron  sand,  or  titanic  iron  ore,  the 
substance  is  finally  pulverized  and  fused  with  three  parts  of 
carbonate  of  potash  [or  soda  potash] ;  on  washing  the  mass 
with  hot  water  a  part  of  the  alkali  is  removed  and  an  acid 
titanate  of  potash  left  mixed  with  the  iron  oxide.  This  is 
dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  the  solution  evaporated 
to  dryness,  when  the  titanic  acid  and  any  silicic  acid  which 
may  be  present  are  converted  into  the  insoluble  modifications 
and  are  left.  The  residue  is  again  digested  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  washed  with  water  (by  decantation,  for  titanic 
acid  easily  passes  through  the  filter),  dried  and  fused  at 
gentle  heat  with  bisulphate  of  potash.  The  sulphuric  acid 
forms  a  soluble  compound  with  the  Ti02  which  may  be 
extracted  by  cold  water,  leaving  the  silicic  acid  undissolved. 
The  solution  containing  the  titanic  acid  is  mixed  with  about 
twenty  times  its  volume  of  water,  and  boiled  for  some  time, 


IRON.  153 

when  the  titanic  acid  is  separated  as  a  white  precipitate, 
exhibiting  a  great  inclination  to  cling  as  a  film  to  the  surface 
of  the  flask  in  which  the  solution  is  boiled,  and  giving  it  the 
appearance  of  being  corroded.  Ti02  becomes  yellow  when 
strongly  heated,  and  white  again  on  cooling;  it  does  not 
dissolve  in  solution  of  potash  like  silica,  but  forms  a  titanate, 
which  is  decomposed  by  water ;  the  acid  titanate  of  potash 
which  is  left  may  be  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid,  and  if 
the  solution  be  neutralized  with  carbonate  of  ammonia, 
hydrated  titanic  acid  is  precipitated,  very  much  resembling 
alumina  in  appearance.  (Bloxam.) 

VOLUMETRIC  DETERMINATION. 

We  may  preface  the  explanation  of  this  method  by  saying 
that  while  it  is  a  very  convenient  one  under  exceeding  care, 
it  is  nevertheless  attended  writh  the  difficulty  that  inexperi- 
enced analysts  may  need  considerable  practice  before  accu- 
racy can  be  claimed  in  the  results  arrived  at.  It  would  be 
well  for  a  beginner  to  assay  a  piece  of  pure  iron  wire  by  the 
process  already  described  by  ammonia  precipitation,  etc.,  and 
then  experiment  with  the  volumetric  determination,  compar- 
ing results. 

VOLUMETRIC  DETERMINATION  by  potassium  permanganate 
depends  upon  this  fact,  that  a  definite  amount  of  this  salt  in 
solution  will  change  a  definite  amount  of  a  solution  of  a 
ferrous  salt  (FeO)  into  a  ferric  salt  Fe203.  If  we  know  how 
much  iron  in  the  ferrous  state  (FeO)  can  be  changed  into  the 
ferric  state  (Fe203)  by  100  cubic  inches  of  a  certain  strength 
of  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium,  we  can  readily 
know  the  amount  of  iron  in  any  solution  of  an  ore,  without 
either  weighing  or  separating  any  of  the  associated  elements, 


154  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

by  simply  measuring  the  proportion  of  solution  of  perman- 
ganate taken  up  in  the  change. 

THE  PREPARATION.  Dissolve  five  grammes  of  pure  crystal- 
lized potassium  permanganate  in  a  litre  of  water  and  preserve 
it  in  a  well-stoppered  bottle  away  from  the  light.  It  does  not 
readily  alter,  but  should  occasionally  be  tested  as  to  its 
efficacy. 

PREPARATION  OF  THE  TEST  IRON.  Weigh  off  carefully  one 
gramme  of  thin  (T^  inch)  clean  piano  wire,  transfer  it  to  a 
\  litre  (nearly  half  pint)  flask  having  a  mark  or  measure  line 
of  capacity,  containing  100  cub.  cent,  (about  3  oz.)  of  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  1  part  to  8  of  water.  Add  a  little  sodium 
bicarbonate  simply  to  evolve  a  little  C02  to  keep  air  out,  and 
then  stop  the  flask  with  an  india-rubber  cork  provided  with  a 
tube  for  evolution  into  another  flask  containing  20  or  30  c.c. 
(about  one  ounce)  of  water.  Previously  to  proceeding  any 
further,  boil  about  300  c.c.  (8  or  9  oz.)  of  water  to  exclude  all 
the  air  and  place  it  aside  to  cool.  Heat  now  the  first  flask 
containing  the  iron  carefully  to  boiling  till  the  iron  is  dis- 
solved, and  the  evolved  hydrogen  will  escape  into  the  water 
of  the  second  flask,  the  tube  being  bent  so  as  to  pass  at  right 
angles  down  into  and  under  the  water  surface  in  the  second 
flask. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  tube  passing  out  of  the  flask 
containing  the  iron  should  be  bent  at  right  angles  and  be 
similar  to  another  right-angle  piece  leading  into  the  second 
flask.  The  benefit  of  two  tubes  is  that  a  piece  of  india- 
rubber  tubing  of  a  couple  of  inches  in  length  may  be  slipped 
over  each  tube  end  and  thus  allow  of  a  clip,  or  pinch  stop, 
between  the  two  flasks  to  cut  off  the  communication  between 
them,  when  such  action  is  needed.  Thus,  when  the  iron  is 


IRON.  155 

boiled  to  entire  dissolution  in  the  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  the 
clips  can  first  be  put  on,  and  after  removing  the  lamp  the 
flasks  will  no  longer  be  in  communication.  After  the  solu- 
tion cools,  open  the  clip,  and  the  partial  vacuum  in  the  first 
flask  will  now  draw  the  water  up  from  the  second  flask,  and, 
by  so  adding  the  water  which  was  boiled  and  put  aside  to 
cool,  the  first  flask  may  be  filled  to  the  mark  which  as  we 
said  at  first  indicated  J  litre  (7  oz.).  This  solution  contains 
now  one  gramme  of  iron  wire,  which  we  will  suppose  con- 
tains .996  pure  iron,  because  by  general  assays  piano  wire  is 
supposed  to  contain  .004  carbon.  This  wire  must  be  assayed  if 
great  precision  and  certainty  are  required.  But  we  now  pro- 
ceed to  draw  out  of  the  flask,  by  means  of  a  pipette,  50  c.c. 
of-  the  iron  solution  containing  £  of  the  iron  (the  J  litre  = 
250  c.c.),  and  transfer  to  a  beaker  of  400  c.c.  capacity,  then 
dilute,  until  the  beaker  is  half  full  and  place  it  upon  a  sheet 
of  white  paper  that  the  changes  of  color  may  be  seen.  Fill  a 
burette,  graduated  accurately,  with  the  permanganate  solu- 
tion. Now  add  the  permanganate  to  the  ferrous  solution, 
stirring  it  well  all  the  time.  At  first  the  red  drops  disappear 
rapidly  and  then  more  slowly,  the  solution  gradually  chang- 
ing to  a  yellowish  tint  ;  then  proceed  slowly  until  the  last 
drop  imparts  a  faint,  though  unmistakably  reddish  tint, 
which  remains  even  on  stirring.  Stop  and  let  the  perman- 
ganate solution  be  carefully  read  off  and  the  cubic  centi- 
metres noted  with  great  exactitude.  The  amount  of  per- 
manganate solution  should  be  about  20  c.c.  Repeat  the 
experiment  with  another  50  c.c.  of  the  iron  solution,  and 
compare  the  two  notings :  there  should  be  not  over  .1  of  a 
c.c.  of  difference.  If  there  is  a  greater  difference,  try  again 
another  50  c.c.  Practice  will  perfect  the  beginner.  From 


156  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  average  calculate  from  the  quantity  of  permanganate 
used  the  amount  of  iron  changed  by  100  c.c.  First  divide 
the  iron  weighed  off  at  the  beginning  by  5  and  multiply  by 
.996  (the  per  cent,  of  pure  iron  in  the  wire  used) ;  this  gives 
the  amount  of  iron  in  50  c.c.  of  the  solution.  Thus,  suppose 
we  took  1.050  grammes  of  iron  wire  and  used  a  mean  of  21.3 
c.c.  of  permanganate,  then  1.050  divided  by  5  is  .210,  multi- 
plied by  .996  equals  .20916,  which  is  the  amount  of  iron  in 
21.3  c.c.  Then  21.3:  .20916::  100:  .98197,  that  is,  for 
every  100  c.c.  of  that  solution  of  permanganate  used  .98197 
is  the  proportion  of  pure  iron  represented.  This  is,  in  the 
main,  the  method  as  described  in  Fresenius,  and  it  is  added 
that,  if  there  is  a  deficiency  of  free  acid  in  the  solution  of 
iron,  the  fluid  acquires  a  brown  color,  turns  turbid,  and  de- 
posits a  brown  precipitate  (manganese  dioxide  and  ferric 
hydroxide).  The  same  may  happen  also  if  the  solution  of 
permanganate  is  added  too  quickly,  or  if  the  proper  stirring 
of  the  iron  solution  is  omitted  or  interrupted.  In  these  cases 
the  result  is  not  satisfactory.  That  the  fluid  reddened  by  the 
last  drop  of  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  added  loses 
its  color  again  after  a  time  need  create  no  surprise  or  uneasi- 
ness ;  this  decolorization  is,  in  fact,  quite  inevitable,  as  a 
dilute  solution  of  free  permanganic  acid  cannot  keep  long  un- 
decomposed.  (Fresenius.) 

It  is  plain  that  when  the  per  cent,  of  iron  is  all  that  is 
needed,  all  that  is  required  is  to  pulverize  the  iron  ore,  weigh 
and  dissolve  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  reduce  the  iron  to  the 
protoxide  condition  (ferrous)  and  then  note  the  proportion  of 
potassium  permanganate  solution  required  exactly  to  change 
the  ferrous  to  the  ferric  state  in  the  assay  and  state  the  pro- 
portion, thus :  the  weight  of  the  assay  ore  we  will  suppose  is 


IRON.  157 

2  grammes  and  of  the  solution  of  permanganate  used  is  50 
c.c.,  which  was  proved  to  be  equivalent  to  (half  of  100,  which 
was  shown  to  be  .9819)  .490  +  of  iron.  Then  the  amount  of 
iron  present  is  .490  of  a  gramme  in  2  grammes  of  the  ore. 

To  prepare  the  ore  for  the  assay  we  must  see  to  it  that  the 
condition  of  all  the  iron  therein  is  that  of  ferrous  salt.  In 
order  to  produce  this  condition  the  ore  should  be  dissolved  as 
usual  in  hydrochloric  acid,  using  a  little  more  than  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  dissolve  it.  Let  it  be  entirely  free  from 
nitric  acid.  The  condition  now  is  that  of  a  ferric  solution, 
and  by  dropping  in  small  pieces  of  granulated  zinc,  which  has 
been  found  free  from  iron,  hydrogen  begins  to  form  immedi- 
ately and  passes  out  of  the  flask,  which,  if  it  has  a  long  narrow 
neck,  will  drive  out  the  atmosphere  and  the  solution  will  be- 
come paler  as  the  ferric  chloride  changes  to  the  ferrous  chlor- 
ide. If  sulphuric  acid  was  used  instead  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  state  of  the  iron  would  be  that  of  ferric  sulphate  and  fer- 
rous sulphate.  Use  a  moderate  heat  and  more  zinc  until  the 
color  having  been  perfectly  removed,  that  is,  the  ferric  hav- 
ing been  changed  into  a  ferrous  condition,  you  are  now^ 
ready  to  add  the  potassium  permanganate  from  the  gradu- 
ated burette,  as  we  have  already  described.  If  the  zinc  con- 
tains iron,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  and  perfectly  pure  zinc 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  zinc  must  be  analyzed  for  iron,  and 
the  proportion  of  iron  in  the  weight  used  must  be  subtracted 
from  the  amount  of  iron  found  in  the  solution,  and  this  zinc 
be  always  that  which  shall  be  used  with  its  stated  amount  of 
iron. 

If  the  presence  of  the  atmosphere  is  objectionable  for  the 
reason  that  the  analysis  is  desired  to  be  extremely  accurate, 
then  the  passage  of  C02  into  the  flask  over  the  solution  from 


158  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

a  prepared  bottle  kept  for  this  purpose,  may  be  provided  for, 
and  the  surface  of  the  ferrous  solution  kept  from  the  oxidiz- 
ing influence  of  the  atmosphere  until  the  volumetric  deter- 
mination has  been  made. 

A  ferric  solution  may  be  changed  into  a  ferrous  by  passing 
hydrogen  sulphide  through  the  solution  while  cold.  Con- 
tinue passing  the  hydrogen  sulphide  some  minutes  after  the 
color  due  to  the  ferric  condition  has  been  changed  entirely. 
Then  cautiously  increase  the  heat  to  boiling  and  continue 
boiling  till  all  the  hydrogen  sulphide  passes  off  and  produces 
no  discoloration  upon  lead  paper  held  at  the  mouth  of  the 
flask.  When  the  boiling  is  discontinued,  fill  the  flask  to 
within  an  inch  of  its  mouth  and  close  with  a  stopper  and  cool 
rapidly  in  a  basin  or  stream  of  cold  water.  It  is  now  ready 
for  volumetric  determination. 

The  hydrochloric  acid  should  be  removed  from  the  solution 
before  the  change  of  ferric  to  ferrous  state  is  produced,  and 
this  may  be  done  by  adding  sulphuric  acid  in  excess  and 
evaporating  the  solution  as  long  as  hydrochloric  acid  vapors 
pass  off  at  a  temperature  of  about  212°  F.  (100°  C.).  Add 
water  on  cooling  and  digest  till  any  ferric  sulphate  crystals 
which  may  have  formed  are  dissolved.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  add  sulphuric  acid  liberally.  If  there  should  prove  to  be 
much  barium,  calcium,  or  any  salt  which  when  combined 
with  sulphuric  acid  might  form  an  insoluble  salt,  the  process 
by  using  zinc  would  be  preferable,  as  these  insoluble  salts 
may  hold  some  iron.  If,  therefore,  after  evaporating  with 
sulphuric  acid,  and  subsequent  treatment  with  water,  any 
insoluble  residue  remains,  it  must  be  examined  for  iron. 

The  above  method  is  generally  preferred  to  others  which 
may  be  found  in  some  works  on  analysis,  and  where  care  has 


IRON.  159 

been  taken  to  keep  the  potassium  permanganate  solution 
always  regulated,  and  skill  used  in  reading  off  the  amount 
employed,  a  few  experiments  will  make  the  performer  quite 
ready,  and  the  process  become  very  easy  and  accurate.  This 
method  of  determination  of  iron  becomes  very  important  in 
the  hands  of  a  skilful  manipulator,  as  enabling  the  analyst  to 
determine  "  by  difference  "  the  amount  of  other  ingredients  in 
an  ore ;  thus,  if  he  has  the  weight  of  a  precipitate  containing 
peroxide  of  iron  and  alumina,  having  by  volumetric  determi- 
nation the  weight  of  the  iron,  he  may  know  that  of  the  alu- 
mina by  simply  subtracting  the  weight  of  the  iron  from  the 
whole.  Or,  if  he  has  the  alumina  by  actual  analysis  in  a 
peroxide  which  he  suspects  contains  phosphoric  acid,  he  may 
proceed  in  the  same  way — adding  the  alumina  to  the  deter- 
mined iron  and  subtracting  the  weight  of  the  two  from  the 
whole ;  if  anything  be  over,  it  will  be  that  of  the  phosphoric 
acid,  if  the  assay  contains  nothing  else.  Such  a  method  of 
determination  by  subtraction  is  termed  analysis  "by  differ- 
ence," and  in  some  cases  is  of  great  importance. 

EXHAUSTION  or  IRON  ORE  DEPOSITS. 

Before  we  close  this  section  relating  to  iron  we  add  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  recently  (1887)  furnished  for  publication  by 
Major  John  W.  Powell,  Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  : — 

"  The  great  increase  in  the  production  of  pig  iron,  from 
4,529,869  short  tons  in  1885  to  5,600,000  short  tons  during 
the  year  1886,  has  led  to  much  inquiry  as  to  the  source  of  the 
ores  which  made  this  increase  possible ;  for  it  is  a  well-known 
fact  that  even  the  ordinary  production  is  a  drain  upon  the  ore 
deposits  sufficient  to  exhaust  the  present  sources  of  actual 
supply  in  a  short  period — perhaps  in  thirty  years — more  prob- 


160  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ably  in  much  less  time.  The  Government  has  given  sufficient 
attention  to  the  general  geology  of  the  country,  however,  to 
afford  a  good  grasp  on  the  distribution  of  the  iron  ores,  and 
the  geologists  have  also  defined  the  character  of  the  ores  so 
well  as  to  direct  the  explorers  accurately  to  the  profitable 
fields.  The  statement  was  made  last  year  by  me  that  within 
thirty  years  the  necessary  exploration  for  new  iron  ore  mines 
wrould  exceed  that  of  Great  Britain,  where  every  available  de- 
posit is  being  traced  to  the  furthest  extent.  The  years  1885 
and  1886  have  shown  the  justice  of  this  prediction  in  the  de- 
velopment of  new  fields  to  support  the  increased  production. 
"  The  new  Gogebic  district  in  the  vicinity  of  Gogebic  Lake, 
Ontonagon  Co.,  Michigan,  which  produced  1022  tons  in  1884, 
increased  to  111,661  tons  in  1885,  and  increased  this  four-fold 
in  1886,  has  been  the  scene  of  unparalleled  developments,  and 
the  same  is  true  of  the  Vermillion  district  of  Minnesota.  The 
confidence  with  which  capital  has  been  invested  in  these  new 
claims  is  due  to  the  advice  of  the  geologists  to  extend  the 
mines  in  this  direction.  That  the  new  mines  are  the  result 
and  not  the  cause  of  the  increased  production  of  iron  and 
steel,  is  shown  by  the  increased  imports  of  Spanish  ores  dur- 
ing the  last  year,  as  the  result  of  higher  prices.  This  shows 
that  the  remedy  for  prospective  exhaustion  is  still  further  ex- 
ploration for  the  mines  to  which  the  geologist  points  in  var- 
ious parts  of  the  country.  Many  of  the  large  deposits  have 
been  neglected,  as  not  suitable  for  making  steel  by  the  ordi- 
nary acid  process,  and  in  others  the  percentage  of  iron  is  not 
attractive.  But  much  attention  will  undoubtedly  be  given  to 
these  ores  within  the  next  few  years.  This  tendency  is  seen 
at  one  locality  in  Tennessee  by  the  increase  from  70,757  long 
tons  in  1884  to  94,319  long  tons  in  1885,  and  even  the  sili- 
cious  ores  at  Cornwall,  Pa.,  show  increased  use." 


TIN.  161 

TIN. 

Pure  tin  has  the  spec.  grav.  of  7.292,  and  belongs  to  the 
white  metals,  as  silver,  platinum,  aluminium,  etc.,  but  the 
spec.  grav.  will  readily  distinguish  the  metal  as  tin.  In  a  bar 
it  is  easily  detected  by  the  crackling  sound  emitted  when  bent 
back  and  forward.  Excepting  lead  and  zinc,  it  is  the  least 
tenacious,  and  hence  lead  is  the  only  common  metal  which  is 
more  difficult  to  draw  into  wire  at  ordinary  temperature. 
Tin  may  be  drawn  at  212°  F.  (Bloxam.)  Melts  at  442°  F. 
and  not  easily  vaporized.  Only  gold,  silver,  and  copper  are 
more  malleable.  Its  chemical  symbol  is  Sn,  and  its  combin- 
ing number  or  "  atomic  weight "  is  118,  or,  exactly,  117.6980. 

OCCURRENT  FORM.  It  rarely  occurs  native,  and  then  it  is 
combined  with  lead  and  even  gold  in  Siberia.  (Dana.)  Also 
as  an  oxide  of  tin  (binoxide)  (tin  78.67,  oxygen  21.33  if  pure), 
massive  and  in  crystals  of  a  lustrous  black,  or  brown,  and 
grav.  from  6.4  to  7.1,  and  hardness  6  to  7,  sometimes  nearly 
transparent  to  entirely  opaque.  Called  then  tin-stone,  either 
as  crystal,  or  massive.  The  streak  is  white  or  grayish  and 
brownish.  It  is  brittle.  The  crystals  take  a  four-sided  shape 
(tetragonal,  right  prismatic)  with  tetragonal  termination  and 
variations  from  this  form,  the  edges  being  sometimes  replaced 
by  planes,  so  that  some  appear  almost  eight-sided.  Mineral- 
ogical  name  is  Cassiterite.  It  also  occurs  as  a  sulphuret,  con- 
taining copper,  iron,  and  zinc,  of  a  theoretic  ratio  correspond- 
ing to  sulphur  29.5,  tin  27.2,  copper  29.3,  iron  6.5,  zinc  7.5  = 
100  ;  this  is  in  foreign  specimens.  H.  4.  Grav.  4.3 — 4.5, 
with  metallic  lustre,  and,  when  pure,  of  a  steel  gray,  but  vary- 
ing to  a  bronze-like  appearance  and  then  called  bell-metal 
ore.  Mineralogical  name,  Stannite. 
11 


162  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  nodular  or  rounded  grains  of  tin  found  in  beds  of 
streams  and  in  alluvial  soil,  and  called  stream-tin,  are  very 
pure  tin-stone  (binoxide) ;  as  found  in  the  alluvial  soil  of  the 
island  of  Banca  it  is  considered  the  best  in  the  world.  Only 
a  small  portion  of  this  island  has  been  explored  for  tin,  and 
that  in  the  north  part,  but  the  yield  is  about  4,000  tons  an- 
nually. In  Cornwall  the  tin  mines  have  been  worked  from 
remote  antiquity,  but  the  tin  is  mixed  with  various  sulphurets 
and  minerals,  as  copper,  blende  (zinc),  arsenic,  fluor,  apatite 
and  tungstate  of  iron  and  manganese  (wolfram).  The  latter 
requires  special  treatment. 

LOCALITIES  AND  GEOLOGY.  It  occurs  in  various  other 
countries  besides  the  ones  stated  above,  as  Austria,  Siberia, 
Saxony,  in  Australia,  and  in  Bolivia.  In  the  latter  country, 
where  tin-ores  form  an  important  part  of  the  mineral  pro- 
duct, it  occurs  in  andesitic  or  trachytic  rocks  of  Cretaceous  or 
Tertiary  age,  and  in  association  with  sulphides  of  silver,  cop- 
per, lead,  zinc  and  iron,  and  without  the  usual  accompani- 
ment of  tourmaline,  topaz,  fluorspar  or  apatite.  In  the  form 
of  cassiterite  tin  occurs  in  some  places  in  the  United  States : 
Maine,  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  New  York,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  Georgia,  California,  Idaho,  and,  as  asserted, 
in  Missouri,  but  not  in  quantities  sufficient  to  invite  much 
outlay  for  working.  From  a  mistaken  notion  as  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  tin  ore,  several  announcements  have  been  made 
of  discoveries  in  various  places  where  no  tin  was,  and  in 
others  where  the  amount  of  tin  was  so  small  and  the  associa- 
tions so  difficult  to  separate  and  in  such  preponderance,  that 
the  discoveries  were  without  commercial  value.  And  yet 
there  are  indications  of  its  workable  existence  in  Missouri  and 
California. 


TIN.  163 

At  present  the  appearance  of  large  quantities  of  tin-ore  in 
Dakota  with  various  associations,  and  in  some  parts  almost 
pure,  seems  to  indicate  that  it  has  a  wide  and  valuable  distri- 
bution. The  district  in  Dakota,  where  the  chief  deposit  has 
been  found  (June,  1883),  is  at  the  central  portion  of  the  Black 
Hills,  in  Pennington  County,  about  twenty  miles  southwest 
of  Rapid  City,  two  miles  from  Harney  City.  It  is  at  the 
claim  known  as  the  Etta,  on  an  isolated  conical  granitic  hill 
rising  about  250  feet  above  the  surrounding  valley,  4500  feet 
above  the  sea. 

The  geological  surroundings  of  the  Black  Hills  are  those  of 
the  outcropping  edges  of  the  sedimentary  formations  from  the 
base  of  the  Silurian  upward  to  the  Tertiary,  so  far  as  they 
exist  in  the  far  West.  These  formations  dip  gently  away  on 
all  sides  from  the  central  nucleus  of  the  more  ancient  rocks, 
which  rise  up  in  a  multitude  of  irregular  peaks  and  broken 
ridges  with  a  general  northerly  and  southerly  trend.  These 
rocks  consist  chiefly  of  fine-grained  mica-schist  and  micaceous 
sandstones,  traversed  by  veins  of  quartz,  which  are  often 
auriferous.  In  some  portions  the  slates  may  be  said  to  be 
garnet-slates,  as  they  contain  20  per  cent,  of  garnet,  rather 
than  mica  slates.  The  mineral  called  staurolite,  from  the 
cross-like  appearance  of  some  of  the  crystals,  is  also  very  fre- 
quent in  the  rocks  ;  staurolite  is  a  silicate  of  iron  and  alumina, 
with  some  magnesia.  The  transition  from  these  schists  to  the 
granite  is  sudden. 

The  tin  ore  seems  to  be  in  granulated  or  disseminated  con- 
dition in  a  rock  composed  of  small  scales  of  mica  and  albite 
feldspar,  called  "  greisen,"  hand  samples  of  which  contain  from 
6  to  10  per  cent,  of  concentrated  ore.  It  is  thought  probable 
that  it  will  be  profitable  to  work,  even  if  some  of  it  does  not 


164  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

carry  more  than  10  pounds  of  tin  ore  to  the  ton.  The  general 
average  of  the  ores  raised  from  the  mines  at  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, appears  to  be  less  than  3  per  cent.,  being  under  60 
pounds  of  "  block  tin  "  (concentrated  tin  ore)  to  the  short  ton 
of  ore.  Some  of  the  greisen  from  Dakota,  sent  to  the  New 
York  metallurgical  works,  assayed  4.6  per  cent,  of  block  tin, 
equivalent  to  2.95  of  pure  tin.  Some  of  the  massive  "  kid- 
ney "  ore  from  the  Etta  mine  yielded  44.1  per  cent.,  according 
to  the  reports  of  the  company. 

Tin-stone  has  also  been  discovered  in  the  northwest  parts  of 
the  Black  Hills,  in  Wyoming,  and  stream-tin  in  beautiful 
brown  grains  on  Jordan  creek,  Idaho,  with  gold  in  the  placer 
deposits  of  that  stream.  Also,  in  1876,  a  bar  of  tin  was  shown 
at  the  Centennial  Exposition,  made  from  wood-tin,  in  small 
rounded  light  brown  colored  grains  about  the  size  of  peas,  or 
kernels  of  corn,  from  Montana,  not  far  from  Helena.  The 
composition  of  one  of  these  ores  shows  the  associations  of  the 
tin  oxide  as  follows :  The  analysis  is  by  Dr.  F.  A.  Genth,  of 
an  ore  from  California,  the  Temescal  tin  mines  at  Cajalca : — 

Silicic  acid 9.82 

Tungstic  acid •  .   .        .22 

Oxide  of  tin 76.15 

Oxide  of  copper 27 

Oxides  of  iron  and  manganese,  lime  and  alumina  .   .    13.54 

100.00 

MINERALOGICAL  APPEARANCE.  As  the  chief  ore  is  that  of 
the  dioxide,  sometimes  called  binoxide  (Sn02)  or  cassiterite,  at- 
tention should  be  paid  to  its  appearance  in  the  mass,  or  in 
grains.  As  the  spec.  grav.  of  the  usual  ore  is  not  quite  that 
of  the  pure  tin-stone,  it  is  difficult  to  detect  it  by  the  weight, 
although  as  we  have  stated  the  pure  is  nearly  if  not  quite  7, 


TIN.  165 

or  very  little  lighter  than  cast  iron.  It  is,  therefore,  much 
heavier  than  quartz,  which  is  2.5  to  2.8,  and  in  hardness  in 
some  cases  quite  equal  to  quartz.  In  color,  however,  its 
variations  may  perplex,  as  it  is  found  black,  brown,  brownish- 
red  and  in  the  wood-tin  mixed  shades,  generally  with  concen- 
tric shades  and  botryoidal  shapes.  Sometimes  it  has  a  reddish 
hue,  gray  yellow,  or  even  white.  The  streak  is  not  always 
white,  but  grayish  and  even  brownish. 

It  has  been  confounded  with  tourmaline  by  those  not  well 
informed,  also  with  brown  garnet.  From  the  former  it  may 
readily  be  distinguished  by  the  lightness  of  tourmaline  3,  tin- 
stone 7,  and  the  streak  of  tourmaline  is  always  uncolored, 
though  its  hardness  is  7.  From  garnet  it  may  be  distin- 
guished by  the  spec,  grav.,  garnet  being  very  little  more  than 
3,  seldom  ever  over  4,  and  its  streak  is  white.  But  the  blow- 
pipe will  determine  the  difference  immediately,  and  this  must 
be  brought  in  to  help. 

BEFORE  THE  BLOWPIPE.  As  cassiterite,  on  charcoal  and 
alone,  it  remains  unchanged.  With  soda  it  is  reduced  to  a 
malleable  metallic  tin  globule,  and  leaves  a  white  coating 
(around  the  metal)  of  tin  oxide.  With  borax  on  the  plati- 
num loop,  it  gives  the  colors  of  iron  and  maganese  if  they 
be  present.  The  former  is  almost  always  present,  but  some- 
times in  quantities  as  low  as  1  per  cent.  But  pure  tin  in  the 
borax  gives  no  color ;  the  borax  bead,  if  discolored  at  all, 
shows  the  presence  of  other  metals,  as  iron,  copper,  manga- 
nese, especially  in  stannite.  It  will  therefore  be  very  difficult 
to  distinguish  the  color  and  shades,  since  they  become  mixed ; 
the  skilful  method  is  to  begin  with  a  mere  speck  of  the  assay 
and  turn  on  the  0.  F.  and  then  add  a  little  more,  watching 
the  bead  with  great  care,  as  frequently  certain  tints  will,  in 


166  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  progress  of  oxidation,  reveal  themselves  to  skilful  manipu- 
lation as  they  will  not  when  a  larger  quantity  is  used  at  first. 
However,  for  detection  of  the  associated  iron,  copper,  or  man- 
ganese, resort  must  be  had  to  chemical  test.  The  best  flux  is 
one  of  equal  parts  of  borax,  or  sodium  carbonate,  and  cyanide 
of  potassium,  upon  the  charcoal  before  the  I.  F.  of  the  blow- 
pipe. 

As  stannite,  in  small  pieces  in  a  glass  tube  closed  at  the 
lower  end,  it  decrepitates  under  heat  and  gives  off  a  little 
sublimate  (tin  oxide) ;  in  an  open  tube  it  gives  off  the  smell 
of  sulphur  (sulphurous  acid,  sulphurous  dioxide)  and  a  white 
cloud  of  oxide  of  tin  near  the  assay  upon  the  glass.  On  char- 
coal it  fuses,  gives  off  sulphur,  and  the  white  tin  oxide  appears 
on  the  charcoal.  It  may  be  decomposed  by  nitric  acid,  and 
the  solution  (blue)  shows  the  copper,  but  the  sulphur  and 
oxide  of  tin  are  apparent  as  precipitates. 

The  geology  of  this  ore  is  evidently  that  of  the  earliest 
rocks,  granite,  gneiss,  chlorite,  porphyry,  and  where  it  occurs 
in  Banca  in  the  alluvial  soil  it  seems  to  have  descended  from 
the  granite  ranges.  It  occurs  in  veins,  and  in  Cornwall  they 
run  almost  always  east  and  west.  (Makins.)  In  Dakota  it  is 
found  in  mica  schist  mixed  with  feldspar  in  the  granitic  re- 
gions, as  we  have  already  described.  In  other  places  in 
quartz  through  granite  and  the  earlier  rocks. 

EXTRACTION  for  detection.  From  the  cassiterite  (binoxide) 
or  tin-stone,  it  may  be  extracted  in  a  small  way  by  melting 
100  grains  with  20  grains  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  and  20  to 
25  grains  of  borax  in  a  brasqued  crucible.  (See  p.  60.) 

In  the  larger  way  and  as  impure,  or  stannite,  as  when 
combined  with  sulphur,  copper,  arsenical  pyrites,  etc.,  it  is 
broken  into  small  pieces  and  separated  from  quartz  and 


TIN.  167 

lighter  gangue  by  washing,  that  is  concentrating,  on  an 
incline,  as  the  tin  ore  is  much  heavier  than  the  usual  gangue 
material.  It  is  then  roasted  under  a  low  red  heat  to  expel 
sulphur,  arsenic,  etc.,  the  iron  is  left  as  an  oxide  (sesqui- 
oxide),  and  the  copper  as  a  sulphate  with  some  unaltered 
sulphide  of  copper.  To  further  desulphurize  the  unaltered 
sulphide  it  is  moistened  with  water  and  exposed  to  the  air  for 
some  days,  after  which  the  whole  of  the  copper  may  be  re- 
moved by  washing,  as  the  copper  sulphate  is  readily  dissolved. 
The  iron  may  now  be  also  separated  by  washing,  as  it  is  a 
lighter  sesquioxide  and  is  in  suspension.  The  ore  now  con- 
tains about  65  per  cent,  tin,  and  it  is  mixed  very  intimately 
with  about  J-  of  powdered  coal  and  a  little  lime,  or  fluorspar 
to  form  a  fusible  slag  with  the  earthy  impurities,  gradually 
roasted  to  prevent  the  melting  of  the  tin  oxide  with  the  silica 
to  form  a  silicate,  from  which  the  metal  would  be  reduced 
with  difficulty.  (Bloxam.)  If  the  process  is  conducted  in  a 
crucible,  the  latter  must  be  covered  so  as  to  exclude  the  air 
and  favor  the  combination  of  the  carbon  and  tin  oxide,  its 
oxygen  going  over  to  the  carbon  to  form  carbonic  oxide  (car- 
bon monoxide).  This  process  requires  a  low  red  heat  for  6  to 
8  hours,  and  then  the  tin  is  found  beneath  the  slag. 

The  tin  thus  extracted  contains  some  impurities,  as  iron, 
copper,  arsenic,  sometimes  tungsten  and  wolfram  (tungstate 
of  iron  and  manganese),  and  in  the  large  way  it  is  purified 
from  the  latter  substance  before  melting,  by  fusion  with  car- 
bonate of  soda  in  the  reverberatory  furnace,  thus  converting 
the  tungstic  acid  into  a  soluble  tungstate  of  soda,  which  is 
dissolved  out  by  water  and  crystallized  for  sale  to  the  calico 
printers. 

In  estimating  the  QUANTITY  of  tin  in  any  compound,  it  is 


168  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

done  by  reducing  the  tin  to  metastannic  acid  (Sn50i0),  for  in 
this  form  it  may  be  separated  from  almost  all  the  other 
metals.  This  acid  appears  as  a  white  crystalline  hydrate, 
when  tin  is  oxidized  by  nitric  acid,  and  the  process  is  as  fol- 
lows :  A  nitric  acid  solution  is  made  and  then  evaporated  to 
a  very  small  bulk ;  by  this  the  dioxide  of  tin  is  thoroughly 
separated.  Proceed  by  washing  this  precipitate  well  with 
dilute  nitric  acid,  and  afterward  by  water.  After  which  it  is 
dried  and  heated  to  a  low  red  to  drive  off  the  water,  for  when 
dried  by  exposure  it  has  the  composition  Sn5010  +  10H20,  but 
when  heated  to  212°  F.  it  becomes  Sn5010  +  5H20.  If  more 
strongly  heated,  it  assumes  a  yellowish  color  and  a  hardness 
resembling  powdered  tin-stone  (Sn02).  Now,  to  estimate  the 
quantity  of  tin,  this  residue  is  weighed  and  the  proportion  is 
78.66  of  tin  to  every  one  hundred  parts.  According  to  Fre- 
senius,  78.67  of  Sn,  21.33  02  =  100.00. 

When  lead  is  present  and  it  is  required  to  decide  the 
amount  of  that  metal,  it  is  necessary,  after  dissolving  the 
compound  in  somewhat  diluted  nitric  acid  under  heat,  to 
dilute  and  filter  and  wash  out  the  metastannic  acid  as  above, 
and  then  to  the  residue  add  sulphuric  acid  in  excess  and 
evaporate  all  down  to  expel  the  nitric  acid.  This  causes 
the  precipitation  of  the  lead  sulphate,  which  is  filtered  out, 
washed  and  removed  to  a  porcelain  crucible,  the  filter  paper, 
(which  contains  some  remains  of  the  sulphate)  is  burned  on 
the  crucible  cap,  or  in  another  porcelain  crucible,  till  it 
ceases  to  decrease  in  weight ;  this  weight  may  be  added  to 
the  contents  of  the  other  crucible,  and  then  all  heated  till  no 
decrease  of  weight  is  found — then  weighed  and  the  amount  of 
lead  determined  from  the  sulphate  of  lead  ;  of  the  latter  68.31 
parts,  by  weight,  are  lead  in  every  100  parts  of  sulphate. 


ZINC.  169 

More  than  half  the  world's  supply  of  tin  is  mined  in  the 
Straits  settlement  at  the  tip  of  the  Malay  peninsula.  The 
output  in  1891  was  36,061  tons  out  of  a  total  of  56,561  tons; 
12,106  tons  came  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  chiefly  from 
the  Island  of  Banca,  leaving  only  8,384  tons  for  the  rest  of 
the  world. 

ZINC. 

OCCURRENT  FORM.  It  is  not  proved  that  it  has  ever  oc- 
curred native,  although  so  stated. 

HARDNESS,  of  metallic  zinc,  2. 

GRAVITY,  of  metallic  zinc,  7.69  (Bloxam),  or  7.146 
(Makins),  7.2  (Richter). 

COLOR.  Grayish  or  slightly  bluish  white,  for  the  METAL  ; 
for  the  ores  see  further  on. 

DUCTILITY,  brittle,  both  at  ordinary  temperature  and  at 
high  temperature,  400°  F.,  but  in  1812  it  was  discovered 
that  a  temperature  between  200°  and  250°  F.,  but  more 
recent  experiments  give  212°  and  302°  F.,  rendered  it  mal- 
leable and  capable  of  being  rolled  into  thin  sheets.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  necessary  that  the  zinc  should  not  contain  iron 
or  lead,  the  former  of  which  it  acquires  when  melted  in  iron 
pots,  while  the  lead  is  carried  over  in  the  distillation  of  the 
zinc  in  consequence  of  the  presence  of  galena  (sulphide  of 
lead)  in  the  ore. 

MELTING  POINT,  770°  F.  (773°,  Bloxam  and  Miller). 

IMPURITIES.  Metallic  zinc,  as  occurring  in  commerce,  fre- 
quently contains,  as  above  stated,  iron  and  sometimes  lead, 
but  also  cadmium,  tin,  antimony,  arsenic,  and  copper. 
(Bloxam.)  Carbon  is  also  mentioned  among  its  impurities, 
but  Elliot  and  Storer  did  not  find  it  in  any  of  the  thirteen 


170  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

specimens  they  examined,  although  traces  of  sulphur  were 
always  present. 

LOCALITIES.  The  ores  of  zinc  are  found  in  Silesia  as  cala- 
mine  (zinc  carbonate) ;  Carinthia,  electric  calamine  (zinc 
silicate) ;  in  Belgium  (zinc  carbonate)  ;  in  the  Mendip  Hills, 
Somersetshire,  Cumberland  and  Derbyshire  (zinc  carbonate) ; 
blende  (zinc  sulphide)  is  worked  in  England. 

United  States.  In  New  Jersey  as  red  oxide  of  zinc  ;  Saucon 
Valley,  Penn.,  as  silicate  and  carbonate  of  zinc;  "Smith- 
sonite  "  or  carbonate  of  zinc,  Ueberoth  mine  near  Bethlehem, 
Penn.;  abundant  as  an  ore ;  at  the  same  place  a  pale  yellow 
zinc-bearing  clay  is  found.  Also  in  Illinois  (Collinsville, 
Peru,  and  La  Salle) ;  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Arkansas,  and 
in  recent  borings  (1887)  at  200  feet  depth. 

It  frequently  happens  that  ZINC  SULPHIDE  is  found  in 
amber-colored  streaks  and  isolated  small  pieces  in  places 
where  no  zinc  mines  will  probably  ever  be  found.  It  has 
been  obtained  in  such  small  quantities  by  the  author,  in  the 
Niagara  rocks  at  Niagara  Falls ;  also  in  Ohio  in  the  Helder- 
berg  limestone,  on  the  Cincinnati  and  Marietta  Railroad  near 
Greenfield,  and  in  various  other  places.  The  silicates  and 
carbonates  are  the  most  useful  ores. 

The  SILICATE  (Willemite)  appears  generally  yellow  and 
gray,  but  sometimes  green  and  even  pink.  Hardness,  5.5  ; 
grav.,  3.8  to  4.1.  Streak,  uncolored.  If  pure  it  should 
contain  72.9  per  cent,  zinc  oxide. 

CARBONATE  OF  ZINC  (Smithsonite)  has  a  hardness  of  5 ; 
grav.,  4  to  4.5,  containing  about  64  per  cent,  of  zinc  oxide, 
when  pure  64.8.  It  has  a  color  varying  from  white  to  gray, 
also  greenish  and  brownish  white,  translucent  and  brittle. 
It  is  found  in  Missouri  and  Arkansas  along  with  the  lead 
ores  in  the  lower  Silurian  limestone. 


ZINC.  171 

ZINC  SULPHIDE,  or  BLENDE,  is  translucent,  having  a  honey 
color  by  transmitted  light,  though  frequently  a  vitreous  and 
almost  metallic  appearance  by  reflected  light.  Another 
name,  mineralogical,  is  Sphalerite.  Hardness,  3.5  to  4 ; 
grav.,  about  4.  It  rarely  appears  black,  reddish,  or  green. 
Streak,  white  to  reddish-brown ;  always  brittle  and  translu- 
cent, sometimes  transparent.  Of  zinc  sulphide  the  propor- 
tions are :  Zn,  65.06  ;  S,  32  =  97.06,  per  cent. ;  Zn,  67.03, 
S,  32.97  =  100.00 ;  Zn,  64.9  (Richter),  65.06  (Fresenius). 

UNDER  THE  BLOW-PIPE,  BLENDE  on  charcoal  in  the  R.  F. 
gives  a  coating  of  white  oxide  of  zinc,  yellow  while  hot, 
white  when  cold.  The  mineralogist  should  remember  that 
the  fact  that  zinc  oxide  is  yellow  while  hot,  white  when  cold, 
is  not  always  an  exclusive  proof  of  zinc,  as  monazite  acts  so 
also,  whose  composition  in  part  is  phosphoric  acid,  cerium, 
lanthanum,  but  no  zinc,  but  very  rare,  though  found  in  the 
United  States ;  it  also  presents  an  enamel  white  glass,  much 
like  zinc  on  flaming  in  borax,  although  zinc  silicate  does 
this  without  borax  and  alone.  It  is  called  monazite  from  a 
Greek  word,  "solitary"  because  of  its  rare  occurrence. 
Perhaps  the  similarity  of  change  under  the  blow-pipe  may 
be  due  to  cerium,  which  with  borax  in  the  0.  F.  also  gives 
a  yellow  color,  turning  nearly  colorless  when  cold,  as  in  the 
mineral  cerite ;  but  these  are  so  rare  that  they  only  need 
mention.  With  a  cobalt  solution  the  coating  in  0.  F.  gives 
a  green  color.  In  open  tube  it  gives  off  sulphurous  fumes 
and  generally  changes  its  color. 

CARBONATE  OF  ZINC,  Smithsonite,  in  the  closed  tube  gives 
off  carbonic  dioxide,  C02,  and  if  pure  is  yellow  while  hot  and 
colorless  while  cooling.  On  charcoal  with  soda  acts  as 
blende.  If  cadmium  is  present,  it  gives  a  deep  yellow  or 


172 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


brown  coating  before  the  zinc  coating  appears.  (Dana.) 
It  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  effervesces.  If  cop- 
per, iron,  and  manganese  are  present,  they  severally  give 
their  own  reactions,  and  great  care  must  be  exercised  if  even 
two  of  these  are  present.  Iron  may  be  detected  by  first 
putting  half  a  drop  of  nitric  acid  on  the  assay  and  afterward 
an  equally  small  amount  of  solution  of  sulpho-cyanide  of 
potassium,  producing  a  blood-red  color.  Copper  must  be 
tested  in  the  wet  way,  as  we  have  indicated  under  that  metal, 
as  also  must  manganese. 

SILICATE  OF  ZINC  ( Willemite).  This  should  be  held  by  for- 
ceps (in  a  small  piece)  in  the  O.  F.  and  then  it  fuses  with 
considerable  difficulty,  making  a  white  enamel.  On  char- 
coal, either  with  or  without  soda,  in  the  I.  F.  it  gives  the 
white  coating  exactly  as  in  blende,  and  acts  with  cobalt  solu- 
tion in  the  same  way. 

DISTILLING  ZINC.  For  chemical  purposes  it  is  essential 
that  the  zinc  be  distilled,  which  may  be  done  in  the  following 
way,  on  a  small  scale,  as  recommended 
by  Bloxam :  Take  a  small,  black  lead 
crucible,  A,  Fig.  6,  about  five  inches  high 
and  three  in  diameter.  A  hole  is  drilled 
through  the  bottom  with  a  round  file, 
and  into  this  is  fitted  a  piece  of  wrought 
iron  gas-pipe,  B,  running  up  in  the  cru- 
cible above  the  zinc ;  the  piece  may  be 
nine  inches  long  and  one  inch  in  diam- 
eter. Any  crevices  between  the  pipe  and 
the  sides  of  the  hole  are  carefully  stopped  up  with  fire-clay 
moistened  with  solution  of  borax.  A  few  ounces  of  zinc  are 
introduced  into  the  crucible,  the  cover  of  which  is  then  care- 


FIG.  6. 


ZINC.  173 

fully  cemented  on  with  the  same  kind  of  fire-clay  with  borax 
solution  until  all  is  tight.  Keep  the  crucible  several  hours  in 
a  warm  place  till  all  is  perfectly  dry.  It  is  then  placed  in  a 
cylindrical  furnace  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom,  through  which 
the  iron  pipe  may  pass  as  in  Fig.  6.  A  lateral  opening,  C, 
may  be  made  for  a  tube  connected  with  a  bellows.  Some 
lighted  charcoal  is  thrown  into  the  furnace,  and  when  well 
kindled  add  coke  broken  into  small  pieces.  The  fire  is  then 
blown  till  the  zinc  distils  freely  into  the  vessel  of  water  D. 
Four  ounces  of  zinc  may  be  easily  distilled  in  half  an  hour. 
But  for  still  purer  zinc  see  further  on. 

From  CALAMINE  or  BLENDE  in  the  large  way  by  the  Eng- 
lish method,  the  ore  is  treated  to  a  preliminary  process  which 
brings  them  both  to  the  condition  of  oxide  of  zinc.  For  this 
purpose  the  ores  are  calcined  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  in 
order  to  expel  the  carbonic  dioxide,  but  the  blende  is  roasted 
for  ten  or  twelve  hours,  with  constant  stirring,  so  as  to  expose 
fresh  surfaces  to  the  air,  when  the  sulphur  passes  off  in  the 
form  of  sulphurous  acid  and  its  place  is  taken  by  the  oxygen, 
the  ZnS  becoming  ZnO.  The  extraction  of  the  metal  from 
this  oxide  of  zinc  depends  upon  the  circumstance  that  zinc  is 
capable  of  being  distilled  at  a  bright  red  heat,  its  boiling-point 
being  1904°  F.  (Bloxam.)  This  oxide  is  mixed  with  about 
half  its  weight  of  coke  or  anthracite  coal  and  introduced  into 
large  crucibles  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom  as  in  Fig.  6.  When 
the  mixture  in  the  crucibles  is  heated  to  redness  it  begins  to 
evolve  carbonic  monoxide,  produced  by  the  combination  of 
the  carbon  with  the  oxygen  from  the  oxide  of  zinc.  This  gas 
burns  with  a  blue  flame  at  the  mouth  of  the  iron  pipe,  but  at 
a  bright  red  heat  the  metallic  zinc  which  has  been  thus  liber- 
ated is  converted  into  vapor,  and  the  greenish-white  flame  of 


174  MINERALS,  MINES    AND    MINING. 

burning  zinc  is  perceived  at  the  orifice.  When  this  is  the 
case  about  eight  feet  of  iron  pipe  are  joined  on  to  the  short 
piece  in  order  to  condense  the  vapor  of  zinc,  which  falls  into 
the  vessel  prepared  for  its  reception.  The  distillation  from 
crucibles  of  about  four  feet  high  by  two  and  a  half  feet  wide 
occupies  about  sixty  hours,  and  the  average  yield  is  about  35 
parts  of  zinc  from  100  of  ore,  a  considerable  quantity  of  zinc 
being  left  behind  in  the  form  of  silicate  of  zinc  (electric  cala- 
mine)  which  is  not  reduced  by  distillation  with  carbon.  This 
zinc,  however,  is  impure,  and  it  is  therefore  melted  again  in  a 
large  iron  pan  and  allowed  to  rest,  in  order  that  the  dross 
may  rise  to  the  surface ;  this  is  skimmed  off,  to  be  worked 
over  again  in  a  fresh  operation,  and  the  metal  is  cast  into 
ingots. 

In  the  Belgian  process  the  zinc  oxide  is  placed  in  fire-clay 
cylinders  lying  horizontally,  the  vapor  being  conveyed  by  a 
short  conical  iron  pipe,  the  smaller  end  projecting  out  from 
the  cylinder  and  communicating  with  another  conical  iron 
receiver  at  its  smaller  end,  and  this  is  emptied  every  two 
hours  into  a  large  ladle.  This  method  economizes  fuel. 

In  the  Silesian  process  the  vapors  are  received  into  a  short 
clay  pipe  instead  of  iron,  and  it  is  remelted  in  clay  pots  and 
hence  has  less  iron  in  the  reduced  zinc,  as  melted  zinc  always 
dissolves  iron  and  a  very  small  quantity  of  iron  is  found  to 
injure  zinc  when  required  for  rolling  into  sheets.  A  small 
quantity  of  lead  always  distils  over  together  with  the  zinc, 
and  therefore  it  is  sometimes  remelted  near  the  base  of  a  flue 
in  a  kind  of  pocket  or  small  pit,  for,  since  the  gravity  of  lead, 
11.4,  is  greater  than  that  of  zinc,  6.9,  the  latter  rises  to  the 
surface  and  is  drawn  off,  thus  relieving  the  mixture  of  some 
lead. 


ZINC.  175 

The  retorts,  adapters,  etc.,  employed  in  the  Belgian  process 
are  manufactured  from  a  mixture  of  raw  and  burned  clay  ; 
the  burned  clay  is  ground  by  edge  mills,  and  the  degree  of 
fineness  given  to  the  clay  depends  on  the  size  of  the  object  to 
be  manufactured.  Up  to  a  certain  limit,  the  larger  the  object 
for  which  the  clay  is  intended,  the  finer  the  clay  is  ground. 

The  burning  of  the  clay  is  effected  in  arched  furnaces  nine 
feet  long,  seven  feet  broad,  and  seven  feet  high.  The  sole  01 
the  furnace  is  also  formed  by  a  vault,  about  two  feet  beneath 
which  is  placed  a  grate  6J  feet  long  and  two  feet  broad,  from 
which  the  flame  enters  the  furnace  by  24  flues,  and  escapes 
by  the  flues  of  the  arched  roof  of  the  furnace.  A  furnace  is 
charged  with  from  15  to  17  tons  of  raw  clay,  and  burns  for 
about  three  days,  consuming  50  cubic  feet  of  coal.  The  clay 
is  then  burned  so  hard  that  it  will  give  sparks  when  struck 
with  steel. 

If  intended  for  the  manufacture  of  retorts,  the  burned  clay 
is  divided  into  grains  about  one-twelfth  inch  in  size,  and, 
after  being  sifted,  is  mixed  with  the  raw  clay  which  has  been 
dried  and  ground.  The  mixture  is  then  moistened  with 
about  20  per  cent,  of  water. 

At  Altenberg,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  the  mixture  for  the 
lower  retorts  consists  of  three  parts  of  burned  and  two  parts  of 
raw  Belgian  clay,  and  that  of  the  upper  retorts  of  four  parts 
of  Belgian,  three  parts  raw  Rhenish  clay,  and  eight  parts  of 
old  retorts  free  from  slag.  The  Rhenish  clay  is  made  suit- 
able for  the  manufacture  of  retorts  by  burning  it  at  a  very 
high  temperature,  approaching  to  vitrification.  An  addition 
of  coke  is  injurious,  owing  to  the  ash  it  contains.  The  clay 
composition  is  kneaded  into  a  paste,  either  by  hand  or  by  a 
pug-mill.  The  retorts  are  mostly  manufactured  by  means  of 


176  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

a  mould  consisting  of  six  semicircular  pieces,  which,  when 
united  with  iron  rings  and  wedges,  form  a  retort.  For  the 
purpose  of  forming  the  bottom  of  the  retort  a  massive  clay 
cylinder  is  first  formed,  the  height  of  one  section  of  the 
mould ;  sand  is  spread  over  it,  and  it  is  placed  upon  the 
floor,  and  the  mould  put  so  as  to  cover  it.  A  hole  is  then 
formed  by  beating  a  conical  rammer  into  the  clay,  and  made 
cylindrical  by  removing  some  clay  by  hand.  The  clay  is 
beaten  against  the  sides  of  the  mould  with  a  club,  and  an 
exact  cylindrical  form  is  given  by  applying  a  templet ;  this 
cylinder  forms  one  piece  with  the  bottom.  Sausage  like  clay- 
strips,  placed  spirally,  and  surrounded  by  another  part  of  the 
mould,  are  now  moulded  upon  the  edge  of  the  cylinder. 
The  inner  sides  are  beaten  against  the  sides  of  the  mould, 
and  the  above-mentioned  templet  is  again  applied ;  this  is 
continued  until  the  retort  has  obtained  the  required  height. 
This  mode  of  making  retorts  is  adopted  in  Belgium  and 
Westphalia ;  other  methods  are  followed  in  Iserlohn  and 
Linz  ;  but  the  quickest  way  of  manufacturing  retorts  is  in  use 
in  Angleur  and  St.  Leonhard,  in  Belgium,  and  at  Vivian's 
zinc  works  near  Swansea.  Wooden  moulds  opening  longi- 
tudinally by  hinges  are  filled  with  plastic  clay  and  placed 
beneath  a  borer,  which  is  the  breadth  of  the  diameter  of  the 
retort,  and  capable  of  being  moved  up  and  down  by  a 
machine.  By  means  of  this  borer  one  workman  is  able  to 
make  from  100  to  150  retorts  in  12  hours,  while  only  18  or 
20  retorts  can  be  made  by  hand  in  the  same  time. 

The  retorts  are  then  dried  in  the  air  for  about  three  weeks, 
and  afterwards  placed  for  two  or  three  months  in  a  drying 
chamber  which  is  kept  at  an  average  temperature  of  86.9°  F. 

The   clay   used   for   the   manufacture   of   muffles   for   the 


ZINC.  177 

Silesiaii  process  is  prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  that  for 
retorts,  only  the  burned  clay  is  somewhat  less  finely  ground. 
It  is  then  mixed  with  about  16  per  cent,  of  water  and 
kneaded,  either  by  hand  or  machinery,  to  as  firm  a  con- 
sistence as  possible.  The  single  parts  forming  the  muffle 
must,  like  the  retorts,  be  intimately  united,  and  the  manu- 
facture carried  on  without  interruption. 

Polonian  clay  mixed  with  one-third  part  old  muffles,  and 
pounded  and  sifted,  is  employed.  The  clay  mixture  is  mois- 
tened and  kneaded  by  hand  to  a  paste,  and  then  a  massive 
prism  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  muffle  is  formed.  By  exca- 
vating this,  the  bottom  and  side  walls  of  the  muffle  are  formed. 
A  clay -plate  is  placed  upon  and  joined  to  them,  and  by  beating 
the  inside  with  a  wooden  hammer,  the  proper  form  of  the  muf- 
fle is  produced.  The  muffles  are  dried  in  the  atmosphere  for 
about  two  weeks,  and  then  kept  in  a  drying  chamber  for  some 
months.  The  muffles  of  Silesian  zinc  works  are  from  4J  to  5 
feet  long,  6  inches  wide  (inside),  and  from  18  to  20  inches  high. 

OXIDE  OF  ZINC  when  pure  is  always  white,  but  in  the  im- 
pure results  from  roasting,  etc.,  it  is  of  varied  colors  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  impurity.  The  true  color  of  pure 
sulphide  of  zinc  is  also  white,  and  the  various  shades  of  the 
ore  are  due  to  the  metallic  impurities  which  almost  always 
exist  and  sometimes  to  such  a  degree  that  the  blende  has  a 
black  appearance  and  sometimes  red,  but  even  then  the 
streak  is  almost  always  white,  or  brownish-white. 

Proportion  of  metallic  zinc  in  the  oxide  of  zinc  is — 

Zn  65.06  80.26  per  cent. 

O  16.00  19.74    "      " 


81.06  100.00 

12 


178  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

PURE  METALLIC  ZINC.  Although  by  redistilling,  and  by 
the  use  of  nitre  in  the  crucible,  zinc  is  supposed  to  be  nearly 
pure,  yet  no  process  gives  zinc  free  from  impurities  abso- 
lutely except  the  wet  process  as  follows :  Dissolve  the  zinc  in 
pure  sulphuric  acid,  thus  soluble  zincic  sulphate  is  formed, 
and  an  insoluble  lead  sulphate,  if  lead  be  present.  Dilute 
and  filter,  and  then  sulphuretted  hydrogen  (H2S)  is  to  be 
passed  through  the  clear  solution ;  this  will  throw  down  the 
cadmium  and  arsenic.  Separate  these  and  then  treat  the 
liquid  with  carbonate  of  ammonia  in  excess,  thus  the  iron  is 
precipitated ;  if  any  zinc  falls,  redissolve  by  more  carbonate 
of  ammonia.  Then  sodic  carbonate  is  added  to  the  liquid 
filtered  from  the  iron  precipitate ;  this  throws  down  the  zinc 
as  carbonate ;  this  must  now  be  separated,  washed,  and  dried. 
Next  by  igniting  this  in  a  crucible  (porcelain  if  large  enough) 
pure  zincic  oxide  is  obtained,  which,  if  treated,  as  we  have 
said  above,  with  pure  carbon  and  distilled  in  a  porcelain 
retort,  will  yield  absolutely  pure  zinc.  The  carbon  should  be 
made  from  loaf  sugar  (heated  in  a  crucible  out  of  air).  If 
any  carbon  should  be  present,  a  second  distillation  will  free  it 
from  carbon.  The  hydrogen  made  from  this  zinc  is  free  from 
all  arsenic  and  may  be  considered  pure.  It  is  the  only 
proper  zinc  for  volumetric  analysis. 

Zinc  salts  are  not  precipitated  by  H2S  (sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen), but  a  white  gelatinous  sulphide  is  precipitated  as  a 
hydrate,  from  neutral  or  alkaline  solutions  of  zinc,  by  means 
of  ammonic  hydric  sulphide  (ammonium  sulphide).  This  is 
soluble  in  acids,  and  is  readily  oxidized  by  contact  with  the 
air.  (Makins.)  In  regard  to  this  method  the  following 
should  be  remembered  and  acted  upon.  Colorless  ammonium 
sulphide  precipitates  dilute  solutions  of  zinc,  but  only  slowly  ; 


ZINC.  179 

yellow  ammonium  sulphide  (see  Eeagents)  does  not  precipitate 
dilute  solutions  of  zinc  at  all.  (Fresenius.)  Ammonium 
chloride  favors  the  precipitation  considerably.  Free  ammonia 
retards  the  precipitation.  With  care  and  the  above  sugges- 
tions acted  upon,  zinc  may  be  precipitated  from  a 'solution 
containing  only  the  one-millionth  part.  The  nitrate  from 
zinc  sulphide  is  likely  to  be  turbid.  The  washing  is  best  con- 
ducted with  water  having  a  small  quantity  of  ammonium 
sulphide,  and  continually  diminished  quantities  of  ammonium 
chloride,  but  entirely  omitted  at  last.  The  hydrated  zinc  sul- 
phide is  insoluble  in  water,  caustic  alkalies,  alkaline  carbon- 
ates, and  the  monosulphides  of  the  alkali  metals.  It  dissolves 
readily  and  completely  in  hydrochloric  and  nitric  acids,  and 
sparingly  in  acetic  acid.  When  air-dried  its  composition  is 
3ZnS  +  2H20;  dried  at  100°  C.  (212°  F.)  2ZnS  +  H20  ;  at 
150°  C.  (302°  F.)  4ZnS  +  H2O.  On  ignition  it  loses  all  its 
water,  but  the  ignition  must  not  be  continued  longer  than  five 
minutes,  nor  over  a  gas  blowpipe  (Fresenius),  or  loss  will 
result. 

If,  in  the  analysis  of  zinc  ore,  the  cadmium  and  arsenic  are 
to  be  separated,  they,  as  well  as  all  other  metallic  oxides  of 
Groups  V.  and  VI.,  may  be  separated  thus :  Precipitate  the 
acid  solution  of  the  two  (cadmium,  oxide  of  Group  V.  from 
arsenic  oxide  of  Group  VI.)  with  hydrogen  sulphide,  taking 
care  in  the  cadmium  and  arsenic  separation  to  have  as  little 
acid  in  excess  as  possible.  The  precipitates  consist  of  the  sul- 
phides of  all  the  metals  of  Groups  V.  and  VI.  Wash  and 
treat  at  once  with  yellow  ammonium  sulphide  in  excess.  It 
is  usually  best  to  spread  the  filter  paper  with  the  precipitates 
in  a  porcelain  dish,  add  the  ammonium  sulphide,  cover  with 
a  glass,  and  place  all  upon  a  sand-bath,  or  water-bath  heated. 


180  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

not  exposing  to  the  air.  Add  some  water,  filter  off  the  clear 
liquid,  treat  the  residue  again  with  some  ammonium  sulphide, 
digest  a  short  time,  repeat  the  same  operation  perhaps  a  third 
or  fourth  time,  filter  and  wash  the  remaining  sulphides  of 
Group  V.  (lead,  copper,  cadmium)  with  water  containing 
ammonium  sulphide.  If  tin  sulphide  be  present,  the  ammo- 
nium sulphide  must  be  very  yellow  or  some  flowers  of  sulphur 
must  be  added  to  the  ammonium  sulphide.  If  copper  be 
present,  it  is  best  to  use  sodium  sulphide  rather  than  ammo- 
nium sulphide,  as  copper  sulphide  is  somewhat  soluble  in 
ammonium  sulphide.  But  if  mercury  is  present  sodium  sul- 
phide cannot  be  used,  as  mercury  sulphide  is  soluble  in 
sodium  sulphide,  but  this  latter  presence  (of  mercury)  is  not 
to  be  suspected,  as  no  such  occurrence  has  yet  been  met  with 
in  ores. 

Add  now  to  the  alkaline  filtrate,  gradually,  hydrochloric 
acid  in  small  portions  until  the  acid  predominates ;  let  it  sub- 
side and  filter  off  the  sulphides  of  Group  VI.  If  it  is  known 
that  a  large  quantity  of  arsenic  is  present  with  a  small  amount 
of  copper,  bismuth,  etc.,  the  latter  may  be  precipitated  by  a 
brief  treatment  with  hydrogen  sulphide,  which  may  also  pre- 
cipitate a  little  of  the  arsenious  sulphide.  Filter,  extract  by 
dissolving  the  precipitate  with  a  little  ammonium  (or  potas- 
sium) sulphide,  acidify  the  solution  and  mix  it  with  the 
former  solution  containing  the  larger  amount  of  arsenic,  and 
proceed  to  treat  further  with  hydrogen  sulphide,  heating  the 
liquid  to  about  150°  F.  as  long  as  any  precipitate  comes  down  ; 
in  the  mixture  will  always  be  some  sulphur  with  the  arsenious 
sulphide  (if  that  is  all  that  is  present),  since  the  arsenic  acid 
is  first  reduced  to  arsenious  acid  (with  separation  of  sulphur) 
and  then  the  latter  is  decomposed.  (Rose.)  To  convert  this 


LEAD.  181 

mixture  into  pure  arsenious  sulphide  ready  for  weighing,  treat 
it  as  follows  :  Extract,  by  dissolving  with  ammonia,  the 
washed  and  still  moist  precipitate  in  the  filter,  wash  the  resi- 
dual sulphur,  precipitate  the  solution  with  hydrochloric  acid, 
cold  ;  filter,  dry,  extract  any  admixed  sulphur  by  dissolving  it 
out  and  through  the  filter  by  adding  purified  carbon  disul- 
phide,  dry  at  212°  F.  (100°  C.)  and  weigh.  The  results  are 
accurate.  (Fresenius.)  Arsenious  sulphide  forms  a  precipi- 
tate of  a  rich  yellow  color  ;  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  except  as 
one  part  to  about  one  million  of  water,  and  also  in  hydrogen 
sulphide  water;  it  may  be  dried  at  212°  F.  (100°  C.)  without 
decomposition.  Red  fuming  nitric  acid  converts  it  into 
arsenic  acid  and  sulphuric  acid.  Composition, 


As2  150  60.98  per  cent. 

Ss  96  39.02 


246  100.00 


LEAD. 

LEAD  is,  in  some  very  rare  cases,  said  to  have  been  found 
native  in  globules,  or  small  scales,  but  of  no  practical  value. 
In  HARDNESS  it  is  1.5 ;  GRAVITY,  when  pure,  11.445  (Dana), 
11.35  (Makins) ;  its  order  in  ELECTRICAL  CONDUCTING  POWER  is 

8,  silver  being  1,  copper  2,  gold  3.     HEAT-CONDUCTING  POWER 

9,  among  the  metals  (1)  silver,  (2)  gold,  (3)  copper,  (4)  alumi- 
nium, (5)  zinc,  (6)  iron,  (7)  tin,  and  (8)  platinum.     And  in 
MALLEABILITY  it  ranges  10  ;  DUCTILITY  12  ;  TENACITY  11,  when 
in  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  metals  we  add  palladium, 
cadmium,  and  nickel.     FUSIBILITY  617°  F.  (325°  C.). 


182  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  only  abundant  lead  ore  is  GALENA,  mineralogical  name 
galenite,  a  lead  gray  brittle  ore,  described  hereafter,  but  it 
occurs  in  various  associations  as  carbonate,  phosphate,  arsenate, 
and  sulphate,  rarely  worked  as  ores.  As  a  mineral  it  is  found 
as  antimonate,  chloride,  oxide,  tungstate,  molybdate,  vanadate, 
chromate,  seleniate,  and  in  some  very  rare  and  unimportant 
forms.  The  only  practical  advantage  in  examining  these 
rarer  forms  is  that  it  may  lead  to  the  discovery  of  the  useful 
ores,  and  hence  under  the  blowpipe  we  have  described  the 
action  of  these  lead  compounds  as  a  class. 

The  GEOLOGICAL  HORIZONS  and  OCCURRENCE  of  lead  are, 
specially  galena,  in  limestones  of  the  Lower  Silurian  era, 
especially  the  Trenton,  also  in  millstone  grit.  It  is  associ- 
ated frequently  with  zinc  (blende),  iron  and  copper  pyrites, 
also  with  calcite,  as  in  New  York  State.  Its  form  and  cleav- 
age (as  galena)  are  generally  cubical,  rarely  octahedral  in  the 
United  States,  but  frequently  in  England. 

It  is  found  in  extensive  deposits  in  Illinois,  Iowa,  Missouri, 
Kansas,  Wisconsin,  and  in  New  York  and  New  England, 
also  in  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Michigan,  and 
in  the  Rocky  mountain  region.  Utah  produced,  in  1893, 
22,916  short  tons,  Montana,  15,165  tons,  and  Idaho,  36,067 
tons.  A  statement  published  in  the  Congressional  Record 
which  shows  the  daily  capacity  of  14  leading  mines  in  the 
Coeur  d'  Alene  region,  would  indicate  a  capacity  to  produce 
more  than  100,000  tons  of  lead  annually,  working  full  time, 
three  hundred  days  in  the  year,  and  not  counting  the  product 
of  smaller  mines.  The  production  of  lead  ore  from  southwest 
Missouri  and  southwest  Kansas,  in  1893  amounted  to  24,363 
short  tons.  The  total  production  of  refined  lead  in  the  United 
States,  in  1893,  is  given  as  229,333  short  tons.  Large  quan- 


LEAD.  183 

titles  of  lead  are  produced  in  the  working  of  silver  leads,  for  it 
is  thought  that  no  galenas  are  found  without  silver,  although 
one  author  says  : — 

"  We  keep  two  hand-specimens  as  special  curiosities.  Both 
are  from  Northern  Lake  Superior  and  look  exactly  alike. 
One  of  them  contains  silver,  $4500  to  the  ton ;  the  other  con- 
tains none.  There  is  very  little  earthy  matrix  in  either  case ; 
but  in  the  former  it  is  carbonate  of  lime,  in  the  latter  it  is 
silex  or  quartz." 

Then,  again,  a  galena  in  calcareous  spar  from  this  same 
region  showed  the  faintest  trace  of  silver.  In  one  instance  a 
sulphide  of  zinc  and  lead  from  the  north  side  of  Thunder 
Bay,  Lake  Superior,  yielded  $4600  per  ton.  In  another,  not 
far  off,  a  silicious  rock  with  carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphide  of 
silver  gave  $360  per  ton.  In  addition  to  silver  all  the  galena 
leads  contain  more  or  less  gold.  Percy  says  that  he  has  never 
found  a  lead  ore  which  did  not  contain  gold.  It  contains, 
however,  in  some  cases  not  more  than  half  an  ounce  of  gold 
to  the  ton,  even  where  the  amount  of  silver  was  1138  ounces 
to  the  ton. 

Galena  is  a  crystalline  ore,  its  primary  form  being  the  cube, 
and  sometimes  with  very  bright  metallic  lustre.  But  it  often 
occurs  in  small  quantities  in  various  associations,  where  it  is 
useless  to  expend  any  money  in  attempting  to  work  it. 

WORKING  ON  THE  LARGE  SCALE.  Before  smelting,  the  ore 
is  assayed  to  find  out  the  amount  of  lead  present.  And  the 
simplest  method  is  by  merely  fusing  the  ore  in  contact  with 
iron,  the  sulphur  of  the  ore  uniting  with  the  iron  to  form  a 
sulphide.  The  simplest  way  is  to  use  a  wrought-iron  crucible, 
or  when  that  may  not  be  had,  to  use  a  clay  crucible  and  in- 
troduce wrought-iron  pieces  (nails,  strips,  etc.)  into  the  melted 


184  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

sulphide.  The  fluxes  used  are  some  alkaline  ones  for  the  dis- 
solving and  separation  of  earthy  matters  and  a  little  borax. 
Supposing  an  earthen  crucible  is  employed,  the  ore  is  first 
powdered  and  dried.  The  weight  for  assay  is  then  taken  and 
250  grains  is  a  fair  quantity  to  operate  upon,  but  if  the  ore  is 
not  rich  as  much  as  500  grains  must  be  taken.  With  250 
grains,  350  grains  of  black  flux,  or  some  analogous  flux,  for 
example,  a  part  of  powdered  argol  with  7  of  sodic  carbonate, 
and  of  this  mixture  about  150  grains  might  be  used.  A  clay 
crucible  having  been  heated  to  dull  redness  the  mixture  is  in- 
troduced ;  about  50  grains  more  flux  is  now  put  in,  then  a  few 
pieces  of  good  iron  (horse-shoe  nails  are  considered  excellent). 
Lastly,  about  60  or  70  grains  of  fused  borax  are  put  upon  the 
top  of  all.  Of  course  if  500  grains  are  used  the  proportions 
would  be  accordingly  increased.  The  crucible  is  then  placed 
in  a  wind  furnace  and  heated  gradually  to  full  redness  for 
about  ten  minutes,  after  which  the  remaining  iron  is  re- 
moved, the  whole  allowed  to  cool,  when  the  pot  is  broken  and 
the  mass  struck  a  sharp  blowr  on  the  side  with  a  hammer ; 
this  compresses  the  bottom  and  breaks  the  slag,  detaching  it. 
Or,  if  all  can  be  poured,  it  may  be  poured  into  a  mould,  with 
care  that  no  metal  remains  adhering  to  the  crucible.  An 
iron  crucible  or  deep  dish  of  iron  is  thought  to  be  better ;  in 
such  a  case  no  strips  of  iron  or  nails  are  used.  A  dry  assay 
may  be  made  without  iron  in  the  following  way  :  The  dried 
and  weighed  assay  is  mixed  with  three  or  four  times  its 
weight  of  dry  potassic  carbonate.  This  is  put  into  a  small 
clay  crucible  and  covered  with  a  layer  of  dry  common  salt. 
It  is  next  introduced  into  a  muffle  and  heated  to  a  high  tem- 
perature for  half  an  hour.  A  button  of  lead  will  subside, 
which  on  removal  of  the  slag  may  be  weighed.  But  this 
requires  more  attention  and  time  than  the  iron  method. 


LEAD.  185 

IN  THE  WET  METHOD  the  lead  may  be  converted  into  the 
sulphate  thus  :  Powder  the  ore,  dry  and  weigh  off  twenty-five 
grains.  This  is  treated  with  strong  nitric  acid.  When  de- 
composition ceases  a  few  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  are 
added,  and  it  is  to  be  evaporated  until  all  the  nitric  acid  is 
driven  off.  This  may  be  done  in  an  evaporing  porcelain 
dish  on  the  sand-bath.  The  metal  will  thus  be  converted 
into  sulphate.  The  mass  is  next  digested  in  water  to  dissolve 
out  soluble  sulphates,  and  the  insoluble  residue  filtered  out 
and  washed  with  water  containing  a  little  sulphuric  acid. 
The  insoluble  matter  is  next  dried,  ignited  in  a  small  porce- 
lain crucible  and  weighed.  It  is  next  removed  and  digested 
in  a  solution  of  tartrate  of  ammonia  or  of  acetate  of  ammonia, 
added  in  successive  portions ;  this  will  dissolve  out  the  plum- 
bic (lead)  sulphate,  leaving  any  baric  sulphate  with  other  in- 
soluble bodies,  as  the  oxides  of  tin  and  antimony,  quartz, 
etc.  The  part  undissolved  of  the  whole  is  again  filtered  out 
and  well  washed  with  boiling  water,  and  again  dried,  ignited, 
and  weighed.  The  difference  between  the  two  weighings  is 
the  amount  of  plumbic  sulphate  which  was  present  in  the 
first  weighed  matter,  and  from  this  the  weight  of  lead  may  be 
calculated.  The  composition  of  lead  sulphate  is — 

PbO  223  73.60  per  cent. 

SO,  80  26.40    "       " 


303  100.00    " 

Of  the  PbO  92.83  per  cent,  is  lead  or  68.32  per  cent,  of  lead 
sulphate. 

The  quantity  of  lead  having  been   determined,  the   lead 
ores  are  picked  over,  sorted  to  obtain  the  richest  and  separate 


186  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  barren  parts ;  they  are  then  crushed,  washed  in  order  to 
concentrate,  and  then  placed  upon  the  hearth  of  the  rever- 
beratory  furnace  and  carefully  and  evenly  heated,  not  to  melt, 
but  with  free  access  of  air,  to  change  the  lead  sulphide  into 
lead  oxide  and  sulphate  by  the  oxidation  of  both  the  lead 
and  sulphur  of  the  galena.  The  portions  so  changed  react 
upon  some  unchanged  ore,  and  the  sulphur  and  oxygen 
being  just  in  the  proportions  to  produce  sulphurous  anhy- 
dride (S02)  this  gas  is  formed  and  evolves  and  the  metallic 
lead  is  set  free. 

Where  the  ore  contains  much  silica  this  process  would  be 
attended  with  much  loss  of  lead  from  the  union  of  the  lead 
with  the  silex.  In  this  case  the  process  with  iron  would  have 
to  be  resorted  to. 

The  fumes  or  gaseous  constituents  passing  off  from  lead  ores 
consist  largely  of  arsenious  acid  as  well  as  sulphurous  anhy- 
dride, and  the  solid  particles  frequently  passing  off  are  ashes, 
carbonaceous  matter,  ferric  oxide ;  but  more  important  are  the 
lead  sulphide,  sulphate,  oxide  and  carbonate,  and  generally 
more  or  less  of  silver  or  what  might  be  called  volatilized  lead 
compounds.  Besides  the  poisonous  effect  on  the  atmosphere, 
great  loss  occurs,  as  high  in  some  cases  as  one-seventh  of  the 
product.  (Makins.)  To  prevent  this  loss,  after  many  experi- 
ments, nothing  seems  yet  so  efficient  as  the  long  flues  some- 
times, as  in  zinc  works,  running  great  distances. 

Experiments  have  been  made  with  blowers,  or  what  in  this 
case  may  more  properly  be  called  "  exhausters,"  which  have 
proved  worthy  of  mention  because  the  experiments  have  been 
so  far  successful.  The  principle  is  to  draw  the  air  in  such 
volume  through  "  ways"  or  horizontal,  or  winding  shafts,  or 
chambers  by  means  of  these  exhausters,  as  in  reality  to  take 
the  place  of  the  vapor  stack  and  create  a  strong  draft. 


LEAD.  187 

In  some  experiments  performed  by  means  of  the  Sturtevant 
blower,  we  were  not  entirely  successful  because  the  exhausting 
power,  or  even  the  blowing  power,  was  not  sufficient  to  over- 
come the  necessary  resistance,  and  while  for  some  very  small 
furnaces  it  worked  well,  would  not  act  continuously  for  larger, 
as  we  found  during  experiments  continued  several  months. 
But  the  power  of  the  Roots'  blower  is  quite  sufficient  to  allow 
a  resistance  of  several  pounds  to  the  inch  and  yet  reserve  suf- 
ficient power  to  force  the  vapors  to  pass  through  the  resisting 
medium  to  the  stack.  In  one  Western  reducing  works  the 
blower  has  been  used  both  as  an  exhauster  and  blower — taking 
the  vapors  from  the  furnaces  and  driving  them  through  water 
into  an  exhaust  chamber. 

As  the  silver  in  lead  ores  remains  pretty  much  the  same  in 
quantity  in  the  metallic  lead  as  in  the  ore  from  which  it  was 
made,  several  processes  have  been  adopted  to  extract  it. 
Formerly  the  lead  of  commerce  contained  much  more  silver 
than  at  the  present  day. 

Mr.  Pattinson  discovered  that  if  we  fuse  lead  containing 
any  considerable  amount  of  silver,  and  then  cool  slowly,  care- 
fully stirring  at  the  same  time,  crystals  will  form  in  the  bath 
and  subside  to  the  bottom  ;  and,  moreover,  these  will  be  much 
less  rich  in  silver  than  the  original  metal  was.  In  order  to 
make  practical  use  of  this  discovery  in  the  lead  works,  a  series 
of  ten  or  twelve  large  iron  hemispherical  pots  are  placed  each 
over  its  own  furnace  and  the  silver  leads  are  melted  near  the 
middle  pot  first,  stirred  and  slowly  cooled,  the  crystals  of  lead 
removed  to  the  pot  on  one  side  and  the  richer  lead  to  that  on 
the  other,  and  thus  the  silver  is  continually  increased  until 
in  the  extreme  pot  on  one  end  the  lead  may  have  only  a  half 
ounce  or  little  over  of  silver  to  the  ton,  while  that  at  the 


188  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

opposite  end  may  contain  as  high  as  640  ounces  to  the  ton. 
This  is  called  Pattinson's  process. 

But  another  process  is  used  in  the  United  States  for  which 
Mr.  Parkes  obtained  patents  over  thirty  years  ago.  In  his 
process  lead  and  zinc  are  fused  together ;  the  object  being  to 
avail  one's  self  of  the  fact  that  zinc  rises  to  the  surface,  carry- 
ing with  it  the  silver  and  the  gold,  and  the  alloy  may  be 
skimmed  off  in  that  condition  as  loaded  with  a  very  large  part 
of  the  noble  metals.  The  skimmed-off  alloy  contains  zinc, 
some  lead,  and  nearly  all  the  silver  and  gold,  and  it  is  then 
subjected  to  another  heating  and  the  less  fusible  parts  sepa- 
rated from  the  more  fusible  by  a  process  called  liquation,  and 
the  zinc  distilled  off  as  we  have  described  under  zinc,  and  the 
lead  cupelled  as  also  described  under  gold  and  silver,  and  thus 
the  silver  is  extracted  pure,  with  the  exception  of  the  gold 
which  it  carries. 

In  both  these  processes  much  lead  oxide  results,  and  this  is 
put  by  itself  and  reduced  with  charcoal  in  a  reverberating  fur- 
nace having  a  bed,  or  hearth,  on  an  incline  towards  a  tap 
hole  situated  on  one  side  at  the  back,  and  raked  over  to  assist 
the  reduction,  and  the  fluid  lead  allowed  to  run  from  the 
lower  part  into  a  pot  set  outside  and  then  ladled  out  and  cast 
into  pigs. 

In  the  Parkes  process  zinc  is  added  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  pound  up  to  If  pounds  to  the  ounce  of  silver  in  the 
lead.  It  is  plain  that  the  zinc  should  be  thoroughly  stirred 
in  the  lead  so  as  to  combine  with  the  silver ;  this  causes  so 
much  labor  that  the  process  of  driving  steam  into  the  lead  has 
been  adopted  with  great  success.  One  of  the  improvements  of 
Parkes' s  process  is  the  use  of  superheated  steam,  which  acts, 
in  addition  to  the  advantage  just  mentioned,  as  an  oxidizing 


LEAD.  189 

agent  to  the  metals  retained  by  the  lead ;  the  watery  vapor 
being  decomposed,  the  oxygen  unites  also  with  a  small  part  of 
the  lead  and  the  hydrogen  passes  off.  Percy  says  that  in  ex- 
amining the  results  of  the  working  of  Parkes's  process  which 
he  witnessed,  the  lead  left  retained  10  dwts.  of  silver  per  ton ; 
that  which  had  been  liquated  retained  55  ozs.  per  ton ;  while 
the  zinc  skimmed  contained  225  ozs.  8  dwts.  per  ton. 

Mr.  H.  0.  Hoffman,  in  the  report  (1885)  upon  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  United  States,  p.  462,  says  that  the  Parkes 
process  is  employed  in  all  the  desilverizing  works  of  the 
United  States  but  one,  and  with  some  improvements  in  par- 
ticular treatments.  The  use  of  steam  for  stirring,  and  the 
use  of  superheated  steam  for  oxidizing  some  of  the  impurities, 
were  patented  before  1873  by  Condurie. 

LEAD  CHARACTERISTICS.  Pure  lead  is  soft  enough  to  be 
cut  into  by  the  finger  nail.  The  impurities  of  commercial 
lead  render  it  harder  and  of  lower  specific  gravity,  and  if  re- 
peatedly heated  and  pressed  it  gradually  becomes  harder.  It 
shrinks  on  cooling,  is  readily  acted  upon  by  acetic  acid,  but 
not  by  cold  hydrochloric  or  sulphuric  acid,  the  action  being 
very  slight  when  boiled  with  them.  Nitric  acid  dissolves  it, 
nitric  oxide  being  evolved,  and  the  nitrate  formed  ;  the  acid 
acts  very  readily  when  diluted. 

Pure  water  containing  air  (that  is  unboiled  water)  acts 
upon  lead  to  produce  the  carbonate  of  lead  (basic  carbonate), 
and  the  scale  falling  off,  renewed  action  will  take  place  until 
the  lead  is  dissolved ;  but  the  presence  of  bicarbonate  of  lime 
prevents  this  dissolution  entirely,  and  the  phosphates,  sul- 
phates, and  carbonates  according  to  Miller  and  Daniell 
diminish  the  corrosion.  Hence  spring  waters  containing  lime 
carbonates  are  inactive  upon  lead,  but  chlorides,  nitrates,  and 


190  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

nitrites  are  particularly  injurious,  3  to  4  grains  to  the  gallon 
inducing  solution.  If,  however,  water  is  boiled  so  as  to  expel 
all  air,  it  is  inactive  upon  lead,  although  the  water  may  be 
pure. 

One  part  in  nineteen  hundred  and  twenty  of  lead  in  gold 
will  destroy  to  some  extent  the  coining  qualities  of  gold. 
Platinum  with  its  own  weight-  of  lead  becomes  brittle  and 
granular.  Hence  a  platinum  crucible  is  perforated  by  fusing 
lead  in  it. 

Lead  cannot  be  cupelled  from  platinum,  for  as  the  lead  de- 
creases the  melting  point  increases  till  the  platinum  congeals 
with  lead  still  remaining. 

WET  ASSAYS  and  methods  of  detection.  Sulphide  of  hydro- 
gen and  sulphide  of  ammonium  throw  down  lead  as  black 
sulphide,  insoluble  in  any  amount  of  these  sulphide  precipi- 
tants. 

Potash  or  ammonia  throws  down  hydrated  oxide  soluble  in 
excess  of  potash,  but  not  of  ammonia. 

Alkaline  carbonates  precipitate  a  white  lead  carbonate 
which  is  quickly  blackened  by  sulphide  of  hydrogen. 

Sulphuric  acid  precipitates  a  white  sulphate ;  this  is  a  char- 
acteristic test.  It  is  thrown  down,  also,  by  any  soluble  sul- 
phate. 

Potassic  chromate  is  the  most  delicate  test,  precipitating  a 
fine  yellow  lead  chromate  in  even  exceedingly  dilute  solu- 
tions. 

Hydrochloric  acid,  or  a  chloride,  gives  a  white  precipitate 
soluble  in  excess  of  potash. 

When  lead  is  to  be  determined  quantitatively  it  is  usually 
precipitated  as  sulphate,  washed,  dried,  and  ignited  in  a  por- 
celain crucible  before  weighing,  the  crucible  being  covered,  as 


LEAD.  191 

"  the  sulphate  is  slightly  volatile."  (Makins.)  In  this  method 
the  solution  of  the  lead  salt  should  be  tolerably  concentrated, 
but  the  sulphuric  acid  diluted.  This  method,  however,  is  not 
so  accurate  as  adding  twice  the  bulk  of  alcohol  and  giving 
time  for  the  precipitate,  then  washing  the  latter  with  alcohol. 
It  should  then  be  dried,  ignited,  and  weighed.  Of  this  68.32 
per  cent,  is  lead. 

The  analysis  of  silver  lead  requires  a  solution  in  nitric  acid. 
Then  largely  dilute  and  add  a  large  excess  of  hydrochloric 
acid  to  throw  down  the  silver.  The  lead  chloride  is  prevented 
from  going  down  by  this  dilution  and  excess  of  acid. 

The  Galena  assay  (wet)  we  have  already  given. 

We  present  Mascazzinie's  method  of  assaying  lead  ore,  viz : 
The  ore  or  other  substance  is  oxidized,  and  its  metals  con- 
verted into  sulphates  before  reduction,  the  best  agent  for  this 
purpose  being  sulphate  of  ammonia.  The  ore  is  mixed  with 
an  equal  or  double  weight  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  according 
as  it  is  supposed  to  be  poorer  or  richer,  and  the  mixture  is 
ignited  in  a  small  crucible  of  porcelain,  covered  to  prevent 
loss  from  spurting.  The  mass,  when  cold,  is  treated  with 
boiling  water,  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  muriatic 
acid.  By  this  means  the  sulphates  and  oxides  of  iron,  copper, 
etc.,  are  dissolved,  while  lead  and  silver  remain  insoluble. 
This  portion  is  washed  by  decantation,  the  washings  being 
passed  through  a  filter.  This  filter  is  next  dried,  and  its  ashes 
are  added  to  the  dried  insoluble  portion.  It  is  then  mixed 
with  muriatic  acid  and  powdered  zinc,  in  order  to  reduce  the 
sulphate  of  lead  and  chloride  of  silver.  The  metallic  deposit 
is  washed  with  water  which  has  been  boiled,  or  acidulated 
with  sulphuric  acid,  and  is  then  pressed  into  a  compact  mass. 
This  is  dried  and  heated  with  from  1J  to  2  parts  its  own 


192  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

weight  of  a  flux  composed  of  13  grammes  carbonate  of  potassa, 
10  grammes  carbonate  of  soda,  5  grammes  of  melted  borax, 
and  5  grammes  of  farina.  The  whole  is  covered  over  with 
dried  choride  of  sodium,  and  heat  is  raised  by  degrees  to  red- 
ness. When  the  whole  is  in  a  state  of  quiet  fusion,  it  is  sub- 
mitted for  a  moment  to  a  higher  temperature.  This  process 
serves  for  determining  lead  and  silver  in  white  lead,  red  lead, 
ores  rich  in  gold  and  silver,  also  antimony,  tin,  and  copper. 
If,  in  the  assay  of  ores  of  gold  and  silver,  the  amount  of  lead 
is  insufficient,  pure  oxide  of  lead  (litharge)  is  added. 


MANGANESE. 

Manganese  (symbol  Mg)  is  so  intimately  associated  with 
iron  that  it  is  rare  to  find  an  ore  of  this  metal  that  does  not 
contain  the  other  in  greater  or  less  proportion.  Manganese 
having  an  extraordinarily  great  affinity  for  oxygen  is  never 
found  in  a  metallic  state  in  nature.  Although  actual  manga- 
nese ores  in  larger  quantities  do  not  occur  in  many  locali- 
ties, the  element  is  very  widely  distributed,  it  accompanying 
nearly  everywhere  iron  in  ores  and  rocks ;  it  is  found  in 
every  soil,  passes  from  it  into  plants  and  into  animal  sub- 
stances (blood,  urine,  liver,  excrements) ;  it  occurs  in  wine,  in 
sea  and  mineral  waters,  in  meteorites,  in  the  solar  spectrum, 
etc. 

Of  foreign  substances,  cobalt,  nickel,  zinc,  titanium,  vana- 
dium, silver,  copper,  indium,  lead,  fluorine,  phosphoric  acid, 
arsenic  acid,  etc.,  have  been  found  in  manganese  ores.  In 
preparing  chlorine  in  English  factories  the  oxide  of  manga- 
nese is  separated  from  the  manganese  passed  into  solution, 


MANGANESE.  193 

converted  into  superoxide  and  any  nickel  and  cobalt  present 
obtained  from  the  residual  solution ;  0.5  per  cent,  nickel  and 
1  per  cent,  cobalt  having  in  this  manner  been  separated  from 
pyrolusite.  In  consequence  of  a  small  content  of  sodium 
chloride  and  calcium  chloride  many  pyrolusites  evolve  with 
sulphuric  acid  a  small  quantity  of  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
have  also  been  found  to  contain  nitric  acid.  Psilomelanes 
contain  barytes  and  lime,  and  occasionally  lithia  and  yttria. 
Argentiferous  manganese  ores  with  5  to  20  ozs.  silver,  0  to  4 
per  cent,  lead,  30  to  40  per  cent,  iron,  and  17  to  18  per  cent, 
silica  per  ton  occur  in  the  Tombstone  district,  Arizona,  and 
in  the  Leadville  district,  Colorado,  and  serve  as  an  advan- 
tageous flux  in  smelting  silicious  silver  ores.  Manganiferous 
zinc  ores  occur  at  Sterling  and  Franklin,  New  Jersey. 

MANGANESE  ORES.  1.  Pyrolusite,  the  peroxide  or  dioxide, 
Mii02,  with  63.2  manganese  and  36.8  oxygen.  It  has  long 
been  used  for  correcting  the  green  or  brown  tints  of  glass ; 
hence  its  mineralogical  name  of  pyrolusite  (n-vp,  fire ;  hvtiv,  to 
wash).  The  crystalline  form  of  pyrolusite  is  the  rhombic 
prism,  and  it  generally  occurs  in  the  form  of  minute  crystals 
grouped  together  and  radiating  from  a  common  centre.  It 
has  an  iron-black  or  steel-gray  color  and  a  semi-metallic 
lustre.  Specific  gravity  4.7  to  5 ;  hardness  1.5  to  2.5,  in- 
fusible before  the  blow-pipe,  and  acquires  a  red-brown  color. 
On  heating  it  generally  yields  some  water  and  loses  12  per 
cent,  oxygen.  With  borax,  soda  and  microcosmic  salt  it 
shows  manganese  reaction.  It  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid, 
when  heated,  with  vigorous  evolution  of  chlorine. 

According  to  Ernst  the  ores  from  Tschiatura  in  the  Cauca- 
sus contain  on  an  average  48.26  per  cent,  dioxide,  1.54  man- 
ganoso-manganic  oxide,  0.79  ferric  oxide,  0.18  lead  oxide, 
13 


194  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

traces  CuO,  1.80  alumina,  0.35  potassium,  0.06  sodium,  1.58 
barytes,  0.43  lime,  0.27  magnesia,  5.09  silica,  0.34  carbonic 
acid,  0.40  sulphuric  acid,  0.36  phosphoric  acid,  and  1.95  water 
with  55  per  cent,  metallic  manganese. 

The  Chilian  ores  contain  45  to  54  per  cent,  manganese  and 
are  paid  for  in  England  at  the  rate  of  1  shilling  4  pence  for 
the  unit  of  manganese  in  the  ore,  provided  it  does  not  contain 
more  than  J  per  cent,  copper. 

2.  Braunite,  the  sesquioxide  or  manganic  oxide  Mn203  or 
according  to  Hermann  MnO.Mn02,  with  69.6  manganese  and 
30.4    oxygen.      Color,   dark-brownish    black   to    iron    black, 
streak    black,    metallic-like  lustre.     Specific    gravity  4.73  to 
4.90  ;  hardness  6  to  6.5.     Non-fusible ;  yields,  when  ignited, 
3.4  per  cent,  oxygen.     With  borax,  microcosmic  salt  and  soda 
it  shows  manganese  reaction,  and  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid,  chlorine  being  evolved. 

3.  Hausmannite,  the  trimanganic  tetroxide  or  manganoso- 
manganic  oxide  Mn304,  with  72  manganese  and  28  oxygen. 
Color,  iron  black  ;  streak  brown  ;  strong  metallic  lustre  ;  spe- 
cific gravity  4.7  to  4.8;  hardness  4.7  to  5.5.     Behaves  before 
the  blowpipe  similar  to  braunite ;  but,  when  ignited,  yields  no 
oxygen.      It  is  soluble  in  hydrochloric  acid,  chlorine  being 
evolved ;  the  powdered  ore  imparts  to  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  a  bright  red  color. 

4.  Manganite,  Mn203.H20,  with   89.7   manganic  oxide  and 
10.3  water.     Color,  dark  steel-gray  to  almost  iron-black  ;  often 
brownish-black  ;  fracture  uneven  ;    streak   brown  ;  imperfect, 
but  strongly  metallic  lustre  ;  somewhat  brittle.    Specific  grav- 
ity 4.3  to  4.4  ;  hardness  2.5  to  4.5.     Infusible  before  the  blow- 
pipe.   When  heated  to  above  200°  C.  it  yields  water  and  some 
oxygen,  together  13  percent.,  otherwise  behaves  like  braunite. 


MANGANESE.  195 

It  dissolves  in  cold  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  chlorine 
being  evolved.  By  exchanging  its  content  of  water  for  oxy- 
gen it  is  gradually  converted  when  lying  in  the  air  into  man- 
ganic oxide  and  even  into  pyrolusite.  According  to  Braun 
manganite  may  also  lose  its  water  without  absorbing  oxygen. 
Next  to  pyrolusite,  manganite  is  the  most  important  manga- 
nese ore,  it  being  used  for  the  same  purposes  as  the  former, 
but  less  for  the  preparation  of  chlorine  and  oxygen. 

Varvicite,  (Mn203.H20).2Mn02,  a  product  of  decomposition 
from  manganite,  is  considered  by  some  not  a  special  species  of 
mineral  but  a  mixture  of  manganite  and  pyrolusite.  In 
pseudomorphs  after  calcareous  spar  compact,  in  cauliform  and 
fibrous  masses  with  semi-metallic  lustre,  opaque,  iron-black 
to  steel-gray,  black  streak,  infusible,  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid.  Specific  gravity  4.5  to  4.6 ;  hardness  2.5  to  3. 

5.  Psilomelane  (from  ^MC,  bald,  and  /^'Aaf,,  black  on  account 
of  the  smooth  spherical  forms  of  a  black  color)  R0.4Mn02,  in 
which  R— Mn,Ba,K2,Li2,  etc.,  besides  Cu,Co,Mg,Ca  and  Si02, 
commonly  (MnO,BaO)Mn02.  The  most  basic  psilomelanes 
correspond,  according  to  Gorgen,  to  the  formula  R0.3Mn02. 
Psilomelane  is  botryoidal, nodular,  stalactitic,  frequently  shelly, 
seldom  fibrous,  iron-black  to  bluish-black,  bluish-black  streak, 
lustruous  to  dull,  conchoidal  to  smooth  fracture.  Specific 
gravity  4.1  to  4.2  ;  hardness  5.5  to  6.  Before  the  blowpipe  it 
yields  manganic  oxide,  giving  off  oxygen.  It  is  soluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid,  chlorine  being  evolved.  The  powdered  ore 
colors  sulphuric  acid  red.  A  solution  in  hydrochloric  acid  of 
the  variety  containing  barytes  gives  a  heavy  white  precipitate 
with  sulphuric  acid.  Considerable  quantities  of  psilomelane 
and  braunite  with  45  to  50  per  cent,  metallic  manganese  are 
found  in  Bosnia,  the  high-graded  ore  with  48  per  cent,  man- 


196  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ganese,  3  to  6  iron,  6  to  14  silica,  0.02  to  0.1  phosphorus  and 
0.02  to  0.05  sulphur  being  used  in  England,  France  and  Aus- 
tria, chiefly  in  the  production  of  ferro-manganese,  and  the  low- 
grade  ore  in  glass  works. 

Laspeyres  gives  the  average  composition  of  19  psilomelanes 
from  various  localities  as  follows  : 


Manganous  oxide 71.86 

Ferric  oxide 0.31 

Cupric  oxide 0.20 


Magnesia 0.17 

Alumina 0.03 

Potassium 1.57 


Cobaltous  oxide 0.08  j  Sodium 0.03 

Lead  oxide 0.01  j  Silica 0.08 

Barytes 7.61  j  Oxygen 14.23 

Lime 0.45  I  Water 3.37 

According  to  Gorgen  the  psilomelanes  are  natural  combina- 
tions of  manganic  acid,  and  the  manganese  in  them  does  not 
occur  as  dioxide,  but  as  mangano-manganites  within  the 
limits  of  6(Mn02)MnO  and  8(MnO2)MnO. 

Wad,  of  varying  composition,  about  MnO.Mn203.3H20,  the 
manganese  being  mostly  represented  by  barytes,  lime  or 
potassium.  According  to  Gorgen  the  wads  are  manganites 
with  several  different  bases  composed  of  between  7(Mn02).- 
MnO  and  10(Mn02).MnO.  Wad  is  toterably  abundant,  and  is 
found  in  England,  Ireland,  Sweden,  Germany  and  America ; 
it  appears  generally  in  the  form  of  brownish-black  masses  or 
loosely  agglomerated  brown  scales.  Some  varieties  are  hard 
and  compact,  and  difficult  to  pulverize ;  others  are  compara- 
tively soft  and  ochery.  Specific  gravity  2.3  to  3.7  ;  hardness 
1  to  3.  When  heated  before  the  blowpipe  it  contracts,  but  is 
otherwise  infusible.  When  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  it 
frequently  leaves  behind  a  residue.  Wad  is  used  as  a  flux  in 
iron  smelting,  and  in  a  lixiviated  state  as  a  paint. 

Other  useful  compounds  of  manganese  are  :  Manganese  spar, 


MANGANESE.  197 

the  native  carbonate  of  manganese,  (Mn,  Fe,  Ca,  Mg)C03,  in 
a  pure  state  with  61.74  MnO  and  38.26  CO2.  It  is  also  called 
rodochrosite  (from  p66ov,  the  rose)  and  diallogite.  It  occurs  in 
spherical  and  nodular  aggregations  of  cauliform  texture  or  in 
compact  masses  of  granular  texture.  It  is  rose-color  to  rasp- 
berry-red in  color,  by  weathering  frequently  brownish,  with  a 
glassy  or  mother-of-pearl  lustre.  Specific  gravity  3.3  to  3.6  ; 
hardness  3.5.  Before  the  blowpipe  it  is  infusible  and  be- 
comes black.  From  similar  minerals  it  is  distinguished  by 
its  rose  color  and  the  manganese  reaction  with  soda  and 
borax  ;  and  from  silicate  of  manganese  by  its  inferior  hard- 
ness, its  effervescence  with  acids  and  its  non-fusibility. 

Large  quantities  of  manganese  spar  with  20  to  30  per  cent, 
manganese  are  obtained  from  the  deposits  between  quartzites 
and  coarse  sandstone  in  the  Cambrian  rocks  at  Barmouth  and 
Harlech,  England.  The  ore  is  roasted  and  in  Flintshire 
smelted  with  iron  and  richer  manganese  ore  to  45  per  cent, 
ferro-manganese. 

Manganese  ores  lenticularly  imbedded  in  the  Silurian  slate 
at  Gross-Veitsch,  Styria,  contain,  besides  pyrolusite  and  psi- 
lomelane,  manganese  spar,  and  are  roasted  before  shipment. 
The  latter  occurs  also  in  Colorado  and  Hungary.  There  may 
further  be  mentioned  franklinite  (FrnO,FeO)Fe203Mn2O3  for 
obtaining  zinc  and  spiegeleisen,  knebelite  (FeO,MnO)2Si02,  for 
the  preparation  of  spiegeleisen  and  umber  (Turkish)  from 
Cyprus  with  48Fe203,20Mn203,5Al203,13Si02  and  14H20, 
which  must  not  be  confounded  with  Cologne  umber  which 
is  an  earthy  brown  coal. 

With  the  blowpipe  a  compound  containing  Mn,  in  however 
small  a  quantity,  is  fused  on  a  piece  of  platinum  foil  with 
carbonate  of  soda,  a  mass  of  manganate  of  soda  (Na.2Mn04)  is 


198  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

formed,  which  is  green  while  hot,  and  becomes  blue  on  cool- 
ing. The  oxygen  required  to  convert  the  lower  oxides  of 
manganese  into  manganic  acid  has  been  absorbed  from  the 
air  (Bloxam).  In  executing  this  test,  turn  up  the  edges  of  the 
platinum  foil  and  apply  the  flame  of  the  blowpipe  to  the  un- 
der side  of  the  foil. 

Manganese  compounds  give  a  violet  or  amethystine  color  to 
borax  in  the  0.  F.  Roasted  substances  containing  but  little 
Mn  are  dissolved  in  SPh,  bead  in  0.  F.,  and  while  the  bead  is 
still  hot  it  is  touched  to  a  small  piece  of  nitre.  The  bead 
swells  or  froths,  and  becomes  when  cold  either  violet,  or 
streaked  or  spotted  with  violet,  according  to  the  amount  of 
Mn  present. 

In  the  United  States  the  most  important  mines  of  mangan- 
ese are  located  in  Virginia,  Georgia  and  Arkansas.  The  chief 
production  in  Virginia  is  at  the  Crimora  mines ;  in  Georgia 
in  the  Cartersville  district,  and  in  Arkansas  in  the  Batesville 
district.  In  California  manganese  is  produced  in  a  small  way, 
for  use  in  the  manufacture  of  chlorine  for  gold-smelting  pur- 
poses. Colorado  produces  two  classes  of  manganese-bearing 
ores,  a  manganiferous  iron  ore  used  to  some  extent  in  the  pro- 
duction of  spiegeleisenj  and  a  manganiferous  silver  ore  used  as 
a  flux  in  the  smelting  of  silver-lead  ores.  A  deposit  of  man- 
ganese ore,  running  from  36  to  40  per  cent,  of  manganese,  has 
recently  been  opened  in  the  Chickasaw  Nation,  Indian  Terri- 
tory, some  60  miles  north  of  Denison,  Texas,  and  15  miles 
west  of  Lehigh  in  the  Indian  Territory.  The  indications  are 
that  there  are  large  deposits  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  regions ; 
in  many  cases  the  ore  is,  however,  so  far  from  transportation 
lines  and  from  the  points  of  consumption  as  to  make  it  im- 
possible to  mine  it  profitably.  Moreover,  the  mining  of  man- 


MANGANESE.  199 

gaiiese  ore  is  one  of  the  most  uncertain  undertakings  in  the 
whole  list  of  mining  operations.  The  amount  of  manganese 
produced  in  the  United  States  is  much  smaller  than  is  gener- 
ally believed ;  its  mining  a&  a  rule  is  not  profitable,  and  the 
risks,  by  reason  of  the  pockety  character  of  the  deposits,  are 
very  great. 

Of  the  method  adopted  by  the  American  Manganese  Com- 
pany, Limited,  which  owns  the  Crimora  mine,  Augusta  County, 
Virginia,  for  sinking  shafts  and  washing  the  ore,  a  brief  de- 
scription is  given,  as  follows  : 

The  shafts  were  sunk  through  the  clay  to  below  the  bottom 
of  the  ore  and  at  a  distance  from  it,  so  that  their  stability 
would  not  be  interfered  with  by  the  mining  operations.  The 
main  tunnel  was  also  driven  outside  of  and  below  the  ore  for 
a  similar  reason. 

From  the  main  tunnel  chutes  run  out  in  all  directions  to 
the  ore  pockets,  where  headings  are  driven  out  on  the  level  in 
various  directions.  The  excavation  of  the  ore  proceeds  at 
several  beds  at  once  in  the  same  pocket  by  stopping  with  tim- 
ber, secondary  chutes  being  provided,  into  which  the  material 
from  the  various  levels  is  dumped,  which  finds  its  way  to  the 
main  chute,  and  so  to  the  cars.  All  of  the  mining  is  done  by 
hand.  Where  the  material  is  hard,  hand  drills  and  dynamite 
are  used. 

The  water  in  the  workings  is  conveyed  in  wooden  troughs 
to  the  chutes,  where  it  passes  out  with  the  material  and  partly 
washes  it. 

The  material  having  no  regular  formation,  but  being  heavy 
and  loose,  necessitates  strong  timbering  of  the  headings,  and 
the  timber  is  in  some  places  subjected  to  such  great  strain  that 
it  has  to  be  renewed  about  every  thirty  days.  The  large 


200  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

quantity  needed  may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  about 
1,500,000  feet  are  used  in  the  Crimora  mine  in  a  year. 

The  main  tunnel  is  7  feet  square,  inside  measurement, 
having  timbers  12x12  inches  3  feet  apart,  which  are  framed 
to  fit  into  each  other  to  make  a  framework,  and  have  plank- 
ing or  slabs  12x12  inches  at  top  and  sides  to  resist  the  outside 
pressure. 

All  material  as  it  comes  from  the  mine  is  dumped  into  the 
chute  above  the  crusher  and  fed  through  it.  It  falls  directly 
into  the  "  log"  washer,  which  consists  simply  of  two  shafts 
about  18  inches  in  diameter  and  24  feet  long,  on  which  are 
bolted  spiral-shaped  teeth,  running  in  a  box  or  frame  24  feet 
long,  5J  feet  wide  and  3  feet  deep  filled  with  water.  From 
this  the  semi-wrashed  material  passes  into  a  Bradford  washer, 
which  is  a  cylinder  13  feet  long  and  4J  feet  in  diameter, 
with  teeth  about  7  inches  long  on  the  inner  circumference. 
From  this  it  goes  into  the  classifying  screen  (conical  shape) 
with  a  three-eighth-inch  mesh.  All  that  passes  over  the 
screen  runs  out  on  the  conveyor,  and  while  it  is  being  con- 
veyed into  the  cars  the  flint  and  other  refuse  matter  are 
picked  out.  What  passes  through  the  three-eighth-inch  mesh 
in  the  classifying  screen  runs  by  a  chute  into  an  elevator,  and 
is  then  dropped  into  a  jig,  where  all  foreign  matter  is  re- 
moved, the  refuse  passing  off  at  the  top,  and  the  clean  ore 
at  the  bottom  runs  into  settling  tanks  and  is  raised  by 
another  elevator  and  dropped  by  chute  into  cars.  All  ma- 
chinery works  automatically,  and  the  material  is  not  handled 
after  it  is  put  into  the  crusher.* 

Use  of  Manganese  Ores.  About  nine-tenths  of  the  manga- 
nese and  manganiferous  ores  serve  for  the  preparation  of  iron- 

*  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1892. 


U.  OK  C. 

V*. 

MANGANESE. 


manganese  alloys — spiegeleisen  and  ferro-manganese,  as  well 
as  other  manganese  alloys.  Considerable  quantities  are  used 
as  coloring  matter  in  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  glass. 
The  violets,  browns  and  blacks  of  pottery  are  usually  pro- 
duced with  oxide  of  manganese,  the  depth  of  coloring  depend- 
ing upon  the  quantity  used  and  the  heat  applied.  Excess  of 
manganese  gives  a  jet  black.  Various  shades  of  brown  result 
from  varying  proportions,  while  a  slight  amount  will  give  a 
violet  purplish  tinge  to  the  ware.  Manganese  may  be  used 
either  in  the  body  of  the  ware  itself,  in  the  glaze,  or  in  the 
decorations.  Manganese,  always  as  pyrolusite  in  its  purest 
state,  is  used  in  glass  making  for  two  purposes ;  first,  to  color 
violets,  purples,  browns,  and  blacks ;  and,  secondly,  as  a  de- 
colorizer  to  remove  the  greenish  tinge  due  to  the  presence  of 
iron  in  the  glass  sand.  One  of  the  chief  uses  of  manganese, 
indeed,  its  chief  one  for  many  years,  was  in  the  manufacture 
of  chlorine  gas  used  in  the  production  of  bleaching  powder 
(chloride  of  lime).  Little  or  no  managanese  is  used  in  the 
United  States  for  this  purpose. 

A  small  amount  of  manganese  is  used  in  the  United  States 
in  the  manufacture  of  bromine,  a  process  somewhat  analogous 
to  chlorine  production. 

Manganese,  as  well  as  the  artificially  produced  peroxide, 
when  heated  in  the  air  gives  a  good  brown  paint  and  when 
moderately  heated  a  black  paint.  Both  paints  may  be  directly 
produced  from  the  residues  resulting  in  the  manufacture  of 
chlorine. 

Manganese  is  also  used  as  a  coloring  matter  and  mordant 
in  dyeing  and  calico  printing,  in  the  manufacture  of  oxygen, 
as  a  material  in  the  manufacture  of  disinfectants,  and  in 
electrical  batteries. 


202  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Magniferous  coke  with  1.5  to  2  per  cent,  of  manganese  and 
traces  of  sulphur  for  the  production  of  crude  iron  for  the 
basic  process,  is  obtained  by  coking  coal  mixed  with  manga- 
nese ores.  While,  according  to  Eilers,  manganese  in  smelting 
argentiferous  lead  ores  gives  slags  containing  silver  and  lead, 
it  prevents,  according  to  lies,  a  loss  of  silver.  When  present 
in  larger  quantities  it  does  not  form  horses,  and  carries  zinc 
in  the  slag.  Nearly  all  argentiferous  iron  ores  of  the  upper 
workings  of  the  Leadville  deposits  carry  5  to  25  per  cent.,  oc- 
casionally 30  to  35  per  cent.,  manganese,  with  0  to  4  per  cent, 
lead,  7  to  18  per  cent,  silica,  30  to  50  per  cent,  iron  and  155.5 
to  622  grammes  of  silver  per  ton. 

Low-grade  manganese  ores  rich  in  iron  are  used  in  large 
quantities  in  iron  furnaces  for  the  preparation  of  spiegeleisen, 
ferro-manganese,  manganese-steel  and  other  purposes  (man- 
gaiiese-copper,  manganese-bronze).  As  regards  the  man- 
ganese ores  used  for  metallurgical  purposes,  the  content  of 
oxygen  is  of  no  consequence,  the  lower  degrees  of  oxidation 
being  occasionally  preferred.  A  manganiferous  iron  ore  with 
at  least  30  per  cent,  manganese  may  be  smelted  by  itself  for 
ferro-manganese  if  the  content  of  manganese  amounts  to  f  of 
content  of  iron.  According  to  Leroux,  for  use  in  iron  works 
American  ores  should  not  contain  less  than  50  per  cent,  man- 
ganese, not  more  than  0.10  per  cent,  phosphorus,  and  not  over 
10  per  cent,  silica.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  of  advantage,  while 
more  than  0.15  per  cent,  of  'copper  has  a  disturbing  effect ; 
cobalt  and  nickel  should  be  absent. 

The  Chilian  ores  with  30  to  40  per  eent.  manganese  are 
much  richer  in  monoxide  than  the  Caucasian  and  Spanish 
ores,  which  contain  only  1  to  2  per  cent,  of  it. 

As  regards  the  countries  producing  manganese  ores  Russia, 


MANGANESE.  203 

since  1879,  takes  the  first  rank,  next  comes  Chili,  then  Ger- 
many, the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria, 
Sweden,  Bosnia,  Italy,  Turkey,  Portugal,  Spain,  Hungary, 
Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand  and  Greece. 

Metallic  manganese  may  be  obtained  by  reducing  carbonate 
of  manganese  with  charcoal  at  a  very  high  temperature,  and 
the  fused  mass  which  is  combined  with  a  little  carbon  (as  in 
cast  iron)  is  freed  from  its  carbon  by  a  second  fusion  in  con- 
tact with  carbonate  of  manganese.  Metallic  Mn  is  darker  in 
color  than  (wrought)  iron  and  much  harder,  brittle  and  feebly 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  Specific  gravity  8.013.  It  is  some- 
what more  easily  oxidized  than  iron. 

Manganese  combines  to  alloys  with  several  metals.  The  most 
important  of  these  alloys  for  technical  purposes  are  ferro-man- 
ganese,  ferro-silicon-manganese  and  copper-manganese,  the  lat- 
ter amongst  others  being  used  for  the  preparation  of  mangan- 
ese bronze,  manganese  German  silver  and  manganese-brass. 

It  is  important  for  the  purposes  of  building  that  the  miner- 
alogist should  determine  the  presence  of  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese in  building  stones,  especially  the  sandstones  of  cream- 
colored  shade,  brown,  or  gray.  Wherever  particles  of 
manganese  oxide  exist  they  are  determinable  by  the  blowpipe 
and  the  borax  bead,  as  we  have  already  shown,  and  their  pres- 
ence will  always  be  followed  by  disagreeable  streaks  of  dark 
peroxide  running  down  the  side  of  the  stone  and  disfiguring 
the  building  and  its  ornaments  wherever  that  stone  is  used. 
Such  blocks  should  be  either  refused  altogether  or  placed 
where  dark  streaks  will  not  be  seen,  for  although  very  small 
specks  in  the  quarry,  when  placed  in  the  outer  walls  they  in- 
variably increase  in  size  and  length  after  every  rain,  and  never 
fade  away. 


204  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  analyses  for  manganese  by  the  WET  PROCESS  may  be 
found  treated  upon  in  connection  with  iron  in  the  article  on 
Iron.  Detection  of  minute  traces  of  manganese  may  be  made 
by  the  following  process :  Dissolve  the  compound  in  a  little 
nitric  acid ;  then  add  dioxide  of  lead  and  boil  the  mixture, 
when  the  least  trace  of  manganese  will  produce  a  red  tint  of 
permanganic  acid. 


PLATINUM. 

Found  NATIVE,  but  combined  with  gold,  iron,  iridium,  rho- 
dium, palladium,  copper,  osmium,  and  chromite  (Dana),  and 
ruthenium  and  occasionally  lead  and  manganese.  (Makins.) 
Ir,  Ru,  Rh,  Os,  Pd,  are  the  platinum  metals. 

HARDNESS,  4  to  4.5  ;  GRAV.,  16  to  19 ;  LUSTRE,  metallic ; 
COLOR  and  streak,  whitish  steel-gray. 

It  has  been  supposed  to  be  slightly  magnetic,  but  this  seems 
due  entirely  to  the  iron  contained  in  the  magnetic  specimens. 
It  is  found  in  fine  grains  and  masses  as  heavy  as  11.57  pounds 
troy,  and  one,  the  largest  yet  reported,  weighing  21  pounds 
troy,  in  the  DemidofF  cabinet. 

GEOLOGY  AND  OCCURRENCE.  It  is  found  in  alluvial  districts, 
but  wherever  this  is  the  case  it  seems  to  owe  its  presence  there 
to  transportation  from  the  earliest  rocks.  In  Russia  it  is  found 
with  chrome-iron  ore  in  serpentine.  About  80  per  cent,  ot 
the  world's  platinum  comes  from  this  source  and  about  15  per 
cent,  from  the  gold  washings  of  the  Pinto,  province  of  Anti- 
oquia,  at  the  headwaters  of  the  Atral  River,  in  the  United 
States  of  Colombia.  In  Brazil  it  is  associated  with  syenite. 
It  has  been  noticed  lately  in  a  quartz  vein  impregnated  with 


PLATINUM.  205 

gold-bearing  iron  pyrites  in  the  Thames  gold  district,  New 
Zealand.  Here  it  seems  to  have  been  in  place. 

In  the  United  States  it  has  been  found  in  small  quantities 
associated  with  placer  gold,  and  in  some  places  of  the  Pacific 
slope  only  has  it  been  found  in  merchantable  quantities.  It 
occurs  in  California  at  Hay  Fork,  a  branch  of  the  Trinity 
River,  on  the  North  Fork,  in  Butte  County  ;  in  the  hydraulic 
mines  around  Cherokee  and  Oroville — occasionally  for  nine 
parts  of  gold  found  here  one  part  is  platinum.  Also  found  in 
Mendocino  county,  in  Anderson  Valley,  Novarro  River,  and 
other  places.  Also  on  the  beach  between  Capes  Blanco  and 
Mendocino,  on  the  Merced  and  Tuolumne  rivers  in  that  State. 
Going  farther  north  the  amount  of  platinum  increases.  On 
the  Oregon  coast  the  proportion  of  gold  to  platinum  in  the 
placers  is  sometimes  five  to  one,  and  in  rare  instances  the 
amount  of  platinum  equals  the  gold.  Platinum  has  been  re- 
ported as  occurring  in  Idaho  and  in  the  Black  Canon  and  on 
the  Agua  Fria,  in  Arizona,  though  the  occurrence  in  the  latter 
Territory  is  not  well  authenticated.  Also  a  considerable 
quantity  was  brought  by  a  private  individual  in  grains  and 
small  pieces  to  Philadelphia  for  examination,  which  was  said 
to  have  boen  gathered  by  him  on  the  Yellowstone  river. 

California  ore  sometimes  yields  the  refiner  only  fifty  per 
cent,  of  its  weight  in  pure  platinum.  The  following  analysis 
of  California  ore  will  give  some  idea  of  its  associations  : 


206  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Per  cent. 

Platinum 85.50 

Gold 80 

Iron 6.75 

Iridium 1.05 

Rhodium .    1.00 

Palladium 60 

Copper 1.40 

Osmiridium 1.10 

Sand .    2.95 


101.15 

The  osmiridium  (iridosmine)  is  an  alloy  of  osmium  and 
indium,  which  is  separated  by  its  insolubility  in  nitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid.  The  sand  mentioned  contains  quartz,  chrome- 
iron  ore/hyacinth,  spinel,  and  titanic  iron.  (Williams.) 

The  production  of  platinum  in  the  United  States  from  the 
gold  placers  is  still  insignificant,  it  amounting  in  1893  to  75 
troy  ounces.  The  use  of  platinum  in  electric  lights  (incan- 
descent) has  largely  increased  the  demand,  and  the  price  has 
accordingly  advanced  ;  May,  1895,  $10.00 — $10.50  oz. 

When  the  proportion  of  iridium  reaches  twenty  per  cent, 
the  alloy  is  scarcely  attacked  by  nitro-hydrochloric  acid. 

THE  WET  PROCESS  of  analysis.  As  the  platinum  metals  are 
soluble  only  in  nitro-hydrochloric  acid,  the  ore  may  be  purified 
in  part  by  employing  the  components  of  this  acid  successively. 
It  is,  therefore,  first  heated  with  nitric  acid ;  thus  any  copper, 
lead,  iron,  and  silver  are  dissolved.  Then,  after  washing,  a 
second  such  operation  with  hydrochloric  acid  will  remove  any 
magnetic  iron  ore  left  in  it.  The  ore  is  now  in  a  fit  state  to 
be  treated  with  nitro-hydrochloric  acid,  made  from  pure  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids.  But,  in  order  to  prevent  the  solution 
of  one  of  the  metals,  iridium,  it  is  diluted  for  use  with  an 


PLATINUM.  207 

equal  bulk  of  water.  The  proportions  Wollaston  advises  are, 
to  100  parts  of  ore  as  much  hydrochloric  acid  as  contains  150 
parts  of  actual  (dry)  acid,  mixed  with  nitric  acid  equal  to  40 
parts  (by  weight)  of  dry,  i.  e.,  free  from  water.  Solution  will 
be  complete  after  three  or  four  days'  digestion,  but  towards  the 
end  it  is  always  necessary  to  assist  this  by  gentle  heat.  The 
vessel  is  then  set  aside  in  order  that  suspended  matter,  which 
is  almost  entirely  iridium,  may  be  deposited.  The  clear  solu- 
tion is  then  syphoned  off,  and  to  it  ammoniac  chloride, 
amounting  to  41  parts  (volume),  is  added.  This  throws  down 
a  yellow  crystalline  precipitate,  which  is  ammonio-platinic 
chloride ;  this  on  heating  will  be  decomposed  and  yield  pla- 
tinum. By  this  first  precipitation  about  65  parts  of  platinum 
are  at  once  separated  from  the  ore,  the  weight  of  the  com- 
pound salt  being,  in  this  case,  about  165  parts.  About  11 
parts  of  platinum  are  left  in  the  mother  liquor  of  the  crystals, 
associated  with  nearly  the  whole  of  the  other  metals.  A  clean 
plate  of  zinc  is  then  put  into  it  which  will  precipitate  them 
all.  This  deposit  is  first  washed  clean,  and  then  redissolved 
in  aqua  regia ;  and  to  the  solution  one-thirty-second  of  its 
bulk  of  strong  hydrochloric  acid  is  added,  after  which  more 
ammoniac  chloride,  so  as  to  throw  down  the  remainder  of  the 
platinum.  This  addition  of  hydrochloric  acid  last  made  is  for 
the  prevention  of  the  precipitation  of  any  palladium,  or  lead, 
with  it.  But  the  palladium  may  be  separated  at  the  com- 
mencement by  first  neutralizing  the  solution  with  sodic  car- 
bonate, and  then  adding  mercuric  cyanide  ;  this  throws  dowrn 
the  palladium,  after  removing  which  the  addition  of  ammo- 
niac chloride  will  precipitate  the  platinum. 

As  the  solution  of  the  ore  in  aqua  regia  takes  place  very 
slowly,  it  has  been  advised,  in  place  of  mixing  and  adding 


208  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  acids  at  once,  to  put  the  hydrochloric  on  the  ore,  and 
then  add  the  nitric  by  degrees,  as  the  solution  progresses ;  and 
no  doubt  acid  may  thus  be  economized. 

The  precipitates  of  ammonio-platinic  chloride  are  always 
contaminated  with  iridium,  a  portion  of  which  has  formed  a 
soluble  double  salt  with  ammoniac  chloride ;  therefore  they 
are  carefully  washed  with  cold  water,  which  will  partially 
remove  this,  and  afterwards  pressed  slightly  between  layers  of 
filter  material,  and  then  dried. 

It  now  only  remains  to  ignite,  in  order  to  separate  the 
ammonia  salt ;  this  requires  much  care  so  as  not  to  use  heat 
enough  to  agglutinate  the  reduced  metal,  the  success  of  the 
after-working  of  which  mainly  depends  upon  its  fine  division. 

For  this  reduction  it  is  put  into  a  black  lead  crucible  and 
heated  until  only  the  platinum,  in  fine  powder,  is  left.  This 
is  removed,  any  lumps  broken  up,  and  then  rubbed  to  pow- 
der with  a  wooden  mortar  and  pestle,  the  rubbing  being  light, 
so  as  not  to  burnish  or  condense  the  powder  in  the  least. 
This  powder  is  the  platinum,  and  the  next  movement  is  to 
consolidate  this  mass  without  melting  because  of  the  ex- 
ceeding heat  required.  But  in  the  analysis  this  is  not  neces- 
sary, since  it  may  be  filtered  out,  dried,  and  weighed. 

This  process,  however,  does  not  entirely  eliminate  the 
iridium  from  the  platinum,  but  while  in  the  arts  this  is  no 
objection,  but  renders  the  platinum  less  liable  to  be  affected 
by  chemicals,  and  harder  and  less  easy  to  melt,  yet  in  analy- 
sis the  platinum  may  be  needed  separate,  as  in  completion  of 
the  constituents,  hence  the  separation  is  called  for  and  ef- 
fected thus :  The  solution  of  the  two  metals  is  treated  with 
potassic  chloride ;  the  precipitate  is  fused  after  washing  with 
twice  its  weight  of  potassic  carbonate.  Thus  the  iridium  is 


IRID1UM.  209 

oxidized,  while  the  platinum  is  reduced  to  the  metallic  con- 
dition. By  boiling  the  whole  in  water  all  potash  salts  are 
removed,  and  then,  on  treating  the  residue  with  nitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid,  the  platinum  is  dissolved,  leaving  the  insoluble 
iridium  oxide  untouched  by  it.  If  any  iridium  is  yet  found 
in  the  product,  this  operation  may  be  repeated.  Potassic 
cyanide  solution  may  also  be  used  for  the  separation,  for,  on 
digesting  the  precipitate  in  it,  the  iridium  salt  will  dissolve, 
while  the  platinum  ore  is  insoluble. 


IRIDIUM. 

This  metal  does  not  occur  unalloyed.  It  is  associated 
with  osmium  in  different,  proportions,  and  in  this  sense  it 
may  be  said  to  occur  NATIVE.  Mineralogical  name  Iridos- 
mine.  HARDNESS  6  to  7  ;  GRAV.  19.3  to  21.12.  (Dana.) 
LUSTRE  metallic,  and  COLOR  tin-white  and  light  steel-gray. 
Opaque.  Malleable  with  difficulty. 

Its  name  is  derived  from  the  various  colors  of  its  com- 
pounds, which  are  green,  blue,  and  yellow.  The  protoxide, 
IrO,  in  solution  in  potash  becomes  blue  when  exposed  to  air, 
from  the  formation  of  the  binoxide,  Ir02.  The  teroxide  is 
green.  Iridium  resembles  palladium  in  its  disposition  to 
unite  with  carbon  when  heated  in  the  flame  of  a  spirit-lamp. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a  general  view  of  the  analy- 
tical process  by  which  the  remarkable  metals  associated  in  the 
ores  of  platinum  may  be  separated  from  each  other,  omitting 
the  minor  details  which  are  requisite  to  insure  the  purity  of 
each  metal.  (Bloxam.) 
14 


210  MINERALS,  MINES    AND    MINING. 

Analysis  of  the  Ore  of  Platinum.     Soil  with  aqua  regia. 


Dissolved: 

PLATINUM,  PALLADIUM,  RHODIUM. 
Add  chloride  of  ammonium. 


Undissolved: 

IRIDIUM,  OSMIUM,  RUTHENIUM. 

Chrome  iron,  Titanic  iron,  etc. 

Heat  in  current  of  dry  air. 


Precipitated: 

Solution: 

Volatilized 

Carried 

Residue: 

PLATINUM. 

Neutralize  with  carbonate 

OSMIUM, 

forward  by 

Mix  with  chloride  of 

as 

of  soda; 

as  Os04. 

the  current: 

sodium,  and  heat  in 

2NH4Cl.PtCl4 

add  cyanide  of  mercury. 

RUTHENIUM 

current  of  chlorine. 

Precipitated: 

Solution: 

as  RnO2. 

Treat  with  boiling  water. 

PALLADIUM 

Evaporate 

Dissolved: 

Residue: 

as  PdCy2. 

with  hydro- 

IRIDIUM as 

Titanic 

chloric  acid. 

2NaCl.IrCl4. 

iron, 

Treat  with 

Chrome 

alcohol. 

iron, 

Insoluble 

etc. 

RHODIUM  as 

- 

SNaCLRoCl,. 

Neither  rhodium  nor  iridium  is  attacked  by  nitro-hydro- 
chloric  acid,  unless  alloyed  with  platinum. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  this  metal  is  quite  wide : 
it  is  found  in  foreign  countries,  in  Russia,  East  India,  Borneo, 
South,  America,  Canada,  Australia,  France,  Germany,  and 
Spain.  The  principal  source  is  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  in 
Russia,  associated  with  platinum  and  gold,  and  the  associa- 
tion in  chief  is  with  platinum  and  osmium,  as  platiniridium 
and  osmiridium,  in  the  former  of  which  the  iridium  amounts 
to  76.80  per  cent,  and  the  platinum  to  19.64,  in  the  osmi- 
ridium the  iridium  is  55.24  per  cent.,  the  platinum  10.08, 
while  the  osmium  is  27.32  for  the  Ural  specimens. 

In  the  United  States,  this  metal  is  found  in  California  and 
Oregon,  and  in  Williams's  report  it  is  stated  as  found  quite 


IRIDIUM.  211 

abundantly  in  the  river  sands  of  the  northern  counties  of  the 
former  State.  Considerable  quantities  accumulate  in  the 
mints  and  assay  offices,  obtained  from  the  crucibles  in  melting 
placer  gold. 

Iridium  ore  is  a  source  of  great  annoyance  when  mixed 
with  gold  dust,  on  account  of  its  specific  gravity,  which  is 
about  19.3,  being  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  gold.  Conse- 
quently, it  is  impossible  to  separate  the  gold  from  the  iridium 
by  the  process  of  washing,  but  as  neither  iridium  nor  its  ores 
combine  with  mercury,  the  gold  may  be  amalgamated  and 
the  iridium  remain  behind.  Or  the  gold  may  be  separated 
by  solution  in  aqua  regia,  which  has  no  effect  upon  iridium. 

In  the  mints  these  metals  are  frequently  separated  in  the 
crucible  by  allowing  the  melted  gold  to  stand  for  some  time, 
when  the  iridium  settles  and  the  gold  may  be  poured  off. 

The  gold  in  the  dregs  is  dissolved  and  the  iridium  remains. 
In  the  San  Francisco  mint  150  to  300  ounces  of  iridosmine 
are  accumulated  annually. 

It  is  supposed  that  the  iridium  which  was  claimed  to  have 
been  melted  by  the  older  chemists  was  alloyed,  since  the 
iridium  of  the  present  day  is  not  of  the  same  nature,  "  duc- 
tile "  and  18.68  for  gravity  as  then  reported,  but  extremely 
hard  and  22.38  in  gravity. 

The  important  discovery  of  Mr.  John  Holland,  of  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio,  that  a  combination  of  phosphorus  and  iridium 
could  be  made  by  heating  the  latter  to  a  white  heat  and  add- 
ing the  former,  has  made  it  possible  to  melt  iridium  in  a  cru- 
cible and  pour  the  iridium  into  ingots.  This  iridium,  which 
contains  about  7J  per  cent,  of  phosphorus,  has  the  physical 
properties  of  the  iridium  without  the  phosphorus,  so  far  as 
hardness  is  concerned,  and  can  be  remelted  at  a  white  heat. 


212  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

But  in  its  fusibility  it  cannot  be  used  for  some  purposes  be- 
fore the  phosphorus  is  removed.  This  is  done  by  heating  the 
phosphorus-iridium  in  the  lime  crucible  within  an  electric 
current.  By  this  means  the  phosphorus  is  entirely  removed. 

The  natural  grains  of  iridosmine  are  used  for  pointing  gold 
pens.  These  are  soldered  on  the  points  and  cut  down  to 
shape  by  diamond,  or  corundum-dust,  upon  the  edge  of  a  cop- 
per wheel  rotating  about  3000  revolutions  per  minute. 

Many  other  uses  are  now  being  made  of  this  metal,  all  de- 
pendent upon  the  facts  of  its  exceeding  hardness  and  its 
infusibility ;  its  melting-point  as  pure  iridium  has  been  esti- 
mated (Violle),  at  1950°  C,  and  platinum  at  1750°  C.,  or 
3542°  F.  and  3182°  F.  respectively. 

Iridosmine  as  it  comes  from  the  mines,  having  been  thor- 
oughly washed  and  free  from  "  black  sand,"  is  worth  from  $2 
to  $5  per  ounce,  pure  iridium  being  worth  about  $20  per 
ounce.  Selected  grains  of  iridosmine  suitable  for  pen-points 
have  a  market  value  of  from  $50  to  $75  per  ouuce.  (Wm.  L. 
Dudley.) 


MERCURY, 

OCCURRENT  FORMS  :  NATIVE,  in  small  globules  scattered 
through  its  gangue ;  also  in  quartz  geodes  containing  several 
pounds  of  mercury,  at  the  Prince's  Mine  in  the  Napa  Valley, 
California.  (Dana.)  Also  associated  with  some  of  its  ores, 
cinnabar  especially.  (Miller.) 

HARDNESS  :  liquid  in  a  temperature  higher  than  — 39° 
Fah.  ;  becomes  solid  at  temperature  under  — 40°  F.=  — 40° 
C.  (Bristow.) 


MERCURY.  213 

GRAVITY:  13.568.  (Bristow.)  When  solid  15.6,  with 
octahedral  crystallization. 

COLOR  :  tin  white. 

DUCTILITY  :  in  liquid  form  elastic ;  as  a  solid,  malleable 
and  ductile,  but  not  in  high  degree. 

COMPOSITION  :  mercury,  with  sometimes  a  little  silver,  and 
sometimes  gold.  (Crookes  and  Rohrig.) 

IT  BOILS  at  661°  F.— 349.5°  C.,  but  evaporates  at  ordinary 
temperature. 

LOCALITIES  :  chiefly  at  Almaden,  a  town  of  La  Mancha,  in 
Spain,  and  Idria,  in  Carniola ;  in  Wolfstein,  in  Rhenish 
Bavaria ;  in  Hungary,  France,  Peru,  and  California ;  small 
quantities  of  native  metal  are  found  in  various  other  places. 

GEOLOGY  AND  ASSOCIATIONS  :  The  rocks  affording  the  metal 
and  its  ores  are  mostly  clay  shales,  or  schists  of  different  geol- 
ogical ages.  (Dana.)  At  Cividale,  in  Venetian  Lombardy,  it 
is  found  in  a  marl  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  Eocene  nummu- 
litic  beds — occasionally  found  in  the  drift ;  springs  sometimes 
bear  along  globules  of  mercury,  as  from  the  Carpathian  sand- 
stone of  Transylvania  and  Gallicia.  At  Mount  Idria  it  oc- 
curs interspersed  through  a  clay  slate.  (Dana.)  At  Almaden 
the  mercury  is  said  not  to  form  veins,  but  to  have  impreg- 
nated the  vertical  strata  of  quartzose  sandstone  associated  with 
carbonaceous  slates  ;  and  in  the  Asturias  the  mines  are  worked 
in  coal  strata.  (David  Page.)  The  strata  in  which  the  Alma- 
den mines  occur  belong  to  the  upper  Silurian  ;  the  immediate 
wall-rock  is  usually  a  black  carbonaceous  slate  and  quartzite, 
with  which  hard,  fine-grained  sandstones  and  slates  alternate, 
but  contain  no  ores.  The  deposits  decline,  at  the  surface  60° 
to  70°,  then  dip  almost  vertically.  They  had  been  opened  in 
1851  to  a  depth  of  1050  feet,  and  they  strike  E.  to  W.  Some- 


214  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

times  in  this  mine  the  ore  is  associated  with  iron-pyrites  and 
ophite  (a  tolerably  compact  diorite).  ("  Cotta  "  by  Prime.) 
Ores  of  mercury  are  found  in  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Saar- 
briick  coal-basin,  in  lodes,  and  as  impregnations ;  in  the  rocks 
of  the  carboniferous  formation,  in  porphyry  and  amygdaloid. 
According  to  Von  Dechen,  the  lodes  of  the  Potz  Mountain  are 
in  the  strata  of  the  carboniferous  formation,  and  such  igneous 
rocks  as  traverse  them.  "  The  general  character  of  these  quick- 
silver lodes  and  the  fact  that  the  ores  are  almost  only  found 
at  a  moderate  depth,  distributed  in  the  numerous  fissures  of 
the  rock,  would  seem  to  prove,  that  most  of  the  ores,  especially 
those  of  mercury,  have  penetrated  into  the  fissures  by  a  pro- 
cess of  sublimation,  and  that  a  tolerably  extended  district  was 
subjected  for  a  considerable  period  to  these  sublimations,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  same  penetrated  wherever  a  possibility 
existed  for  their  doing  so,  and  were  deposited  at  a  certain 
level  (by  a  certain  temperature),  having  some  choice  as  to  the 
rocks  which  they  selected."  ("Cotta"  by  Prime.) 

CHEMICAL  CHARACTERISTICS.  Mercury  is  readily  dissolved 
by  nitric  acid,  and  the  nitrate  is  formed  with  evolution  of 
nitric  oxide  ;  if  the  nitric  acid  is  dilute,  the  action  is  slow,  and 
crystals  are  formed  of  mercurous  nitrate. 

Sulphuric  acid  dissolves  it  with  heat,  forming  a  sulphate, 
and  at  the  same  time  sulphurous  acid  is  evolved.  Hydro- 
chloric acid  has  no  action  upon  it.  It  combines  directly  at 
ordinary  temperatures  with  chlorine,  iodine  and  bromine,  and 
it  combines  readily  with  gold,  silver,  tin,  lead,  bismuth,  cad- 
mium and  zinc,  with  some  more  difficulty  with  copper  and 
iron.  When  potassium  or  sodium  is  associated  with  it,  it 
readily  adheres  even  to  steel. 

Two  oxides  of  mercury  are  known,  the  suboxide  Hg20,  and 


MERCURY.  215 

the  oxide  HgO.  The  suboxide  is  called  the  black  oxide,  or 
mercurous  oxide  ;  the  oxide  is  called  the  red  oxide,  or  red  pre- 
cipitate, becomes  nearly  black  when  heated,  and  is  resolved 
into  mercury  and  oxygen  at  a  red  heat.  A  bright  yellow 
modification  of  the  oxide  is  precipitated  when  a  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  (HgCl2)  is  decomposed  by  potash.  The 
yellow  variety  is  chemically  more  active  than  the  red. 

ORES.  The  New  Almaden  Mine,  in  California,  is  the  most 
important  in  the  United  States,  and  supposed  to  be  second,  in 
product,  in  the  world,  Almaden,  in  Spain,  being  first.  The 
ore  is  cinnabar]  which  is  a  native  sulphide,  varying  in  color 
from  dark  brown  to  red,  SPEC.  GRAVITY  8.2 ;  streak  red. 
Neither  hydrochloric  nor  nitric  acid  will  effect  a  solution,  but 
a  mixture  of  the  two  dissolves  it,  forming  mercuric  chloride 
with  separation  of  sulphur.  Pyrite,  occasionally,  accom- 
panies the  ore,  bitumen  is  quite  common  and  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  cinnabar.  Some  native  mercury  is  also 
present. 

The  ore  is  first  broken  and  passed  through  bar-screens 
placed  about  one  inch,  or  inch  and  a  quarter  apart,  and  the 
sizes  of  ores  passed  through  in  this  condition  are  called  tierras 
(or  fine  ore).  The  large  pieces  which  do  not  pass  through 
are  picked  over  and  that  which  contains  cinnabar  is  reduced 
to  less  than  9  inches,  and  these  in  the  quantity  are  known  as 
granza,  or  coarse  ore.  But  these  sizes  and  sorts  are  again 
picked  over  at  the  reducing  furnaces,  changed  in  size  and 
richness.  At  the  mine  the  granza  is  often  associated  with 
serpentine,  and  as  a  whole  contains  only  from  6  to  8  per  cent, 
of  metallic  quicksilver.  The  waste  is  also  picked  and  any 
sign  of  cinnabar  causes  it  to  be  kept,  washed,  and  set  out  in 
the  weather,  and  it  is  called  terrero,  its  quicksilver  contents 
being  only  about  1  or  2  per  cent. 


216  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  granza  and  the  tierras  are  weighed ;  the  terrero  and 
other  dump  material  are  estimated  by  volume,  the  latter 
weighing  about  85  pounds  to  a  cubic  foot  and  23.5  cubic  feet 
to  the  ton. 

The  method  of  treatment  is  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the 
above  classifications. 

In  former  times  the  retort  process  was  used,  necessitating 
crushing  all  the  ores  in  order  to  mix  them  with  lime,  but 
this  was  abandoned  some  years  ago,  because  of  the  salivation 
of  the  workmen  caused  by  vapors  and  dust  arising  from  and 
because  of  the  process.  Hence  attempts  were  made  to  roast  the 
ores  and  condense  the  quicksilver  arising  from  the  combus- 
tion. This  roasting  is  performed  only  in  case  of  the  larger 
poorer  masses  in  cylinder  furnaces  of  the  Rumford  pattern, 
vertically  kindled  with  fires  at  the  bottom  outside,  and  the 
ores  arranged  so  that  they  do  not  intercept  the  upper  draft  or 
ascent  of  heat  to  too  great  an  extent.  This  is  done  by  plac- 
ing heavy  larger  or  spent  pieces  at  the  bottom  of  an  hexago- 
nal cylinder  of  sheet  iron  whose  upper  half  is  cylindrical,  the 
lower  half  only  being  hexagonal.  The  lower  half  is  prepared 
with  the  fireplaces  below,  out  of  the  line  of  the  cylinder,  ver- 
tically, and  the  draw-holes  below  for  removing  the  ore  when 
all  the  quicksilver  has  been  roasted  out.  The  uppermost 
part  is  covered  with  a  flat  dome  at  the  top,  with  an  arrange- 
ment for  dumping  in  the  ores  and  covering  quickly  to  avoid 
the  loss  of  the  quicksilver  in  vapor.  The  sides  near  the  top 
are  provided  with  exit  pipes  for  conveying  the  quicksilver 
vapors  into  condensers.  This  furnace  is  only  for  the  coarse 
ores  which  cannot  be  treated  in  the  Hiittner  &  Scott  shelf 
furnace ;  this  we  shall  describe.  After  many  experiments 
and  improvements  the  resultant  form  remained  as  follows : 


MERCURY.  217 

The  ore  body  of  the  furnace  consists  of  a  long  narrow  room 
running  upward  to  a  proportionally  high  elevation  and  with 
openings  in  the  end  walls,  "  pigeon-holes ;"  from  either  side 
wall  of  this  ore  chamber  project  tile  shelves  to  catch  the  small 
ore  which  is  thrown  in  from  the  top  of  the  furnace  or  ore 
chamber.  These  shelves  incline  inward  to  the  wall,  thus 
catching  the  falling  ore  and  throwing  it  back  against  the 
wall.  The  shelves  on  opposite  sides  are  not  opposite  each 
other,  but  alternate,  so  that  the  ore  is  more  likely  in  falling 
to  be  caught  as  it  falls  upon  and  strikes  one  shelf  by  the  other 
shelf  opposite,  and  the  distance  from  one  shelf  vertically 
downward  to  the  other  varies  as  the  fineness  of  the  ore  from 
three  to  eight  inches.  The  edges  of  these  shelves  lap  under 
each  other,  so  that  when  they  are  over  full  the  fine  ore  slides 
off  and  is  caught  by  the  lower  shelf  and  pitched  back  to  the 
wall  until  too  full,  when  it  begins  to  deliver  to  the  next 
below,  and  so  on,  till  the  furnace  is  fully  charged,  of  which 
fact  the  workman  must  judge  by  peep-holes,  aided  by  his  ex- 
perience in  charging.  When  fine  ore  is  fed  into  the  ore 
chamber  through  the  hopper  at  the  top  it  runs  from  one 
shelf  to  the  next  until  the  column  finds  support  upon  the  dis- 
charge apparatus  at  the  bottom,  whereupon  the  whole  column 
comes  to  rest  throughout  the  structure.  Thus  the  shelves  of 
the  ore  chambers  are  kept  covered  by  an  irregular,  zigzag 
column  of  ore.  The  end  walls  of  the  chamber  are  pierced 
with  pigeon-holes  so  that  the  flames  may  pass  from  the  fire- 
place under  each  shelf  and  over  the  ore  lying  upon  the  shelf 
beneath  to  a  vapor  chamber  on  the  opposite  end  of  the  ore 
chamber.  Thence  they  pass  to  the  condensers.  In  the  first 
experimental  form  the  flames  made  only  one  passage  across 
the  ore  chambers.  The  furnace  as  thus  constructed  roasted 


218  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  ores  well  enough,  but  the  escaping  vapors  were  still  quite 
hot  and  the  consumption  of  fuel  was  considerable.  This 
loss  of  heat  was  provided  for  by  arches  placed  across  the 
vapor  chambers  and  over  the  fire-box,  so  that  the  air  and 
fumes  were  compelled  to  make  four  passages  across  the  fur- 
nace on  their  way  to  the  condensers. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  method  is  superior  to  that  of  work- 
ing the  fine  ores  into  bricks  with  clay  and  roasting,  for  the 
making  of  these  bricks,  called  "adobes"  caused  an  outlay  of 
work  and  expense  of  about  ninety-five  cents  to  the  ton  of  ore 
which  is  now  entirely  unnecessary  in  the  shelf  furnace. 

In  the  old  intermittent  furnaces,  only  one  of  which  is  now 
used  at  New  Almaden,  the  chamber  is  12  feet  long,  9  feet 
wide,  and  17  feet  6  inches  high,  inside  measures,  and  the 
charge  of  ore  is  80  to  100  tons,  arranged  with  graded  ascent 
openings  in  the  ore  to  the  top,  with  channels  from  the  fire- 
place to  the  vapor  chamber  at  opposite  ends  of  the  furnace. 
The  graded  condition  is  called  for  by  the  natural  tendency  of 
hot  air  to  roast  the  upper  rather  than  the  lower  layers  of  ore  ; 
the  channels  are  made  smaller  and  further  apart  in  the  upper 
layers  of  ore,  and  a  certain  amount  of  tierras  and  soot  from 
the  condensers  is  added  to  the  coarse  ore  for  the  same  reason. 
But  the  intermittent  furnaces  are  no  longer  used  to  treat 
tierras,  and  the  model  of  the  old  Rumford  lime-kiln  improved 
upon  at  Idria,  Austria,  by  Bergrath  Exeli,  and  in  some  re- 
spects still  further  improved  upon  for  coarse  ore  shaft  roasting 
furnaces  with  exterior  firing,  is  fully  explained  by  Samuel  B. 
Christy  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American  Institute  of  Min- 
ing Engineers,  and  found  also  in  Williams's  "  Mineral  Re- 
sources "  in  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  1883  and  1884. 

Characteristics  of  mercurial  compounds.     If  a  substance  sup- 


MERCURY.  219 

posed  to  contain  mercury  be  insoluble,  a  portion  of  it  may  be 
placed  in  a  hard  glass  tube  and  then  covered  with  a  thick 
layer  of  dry  sodic  carbonate,  and  subsequently  heated.  If 
mercury  be  present,  it  will  separate  and  condense  in  globules 
in  a  cool  part  of  the  tube.  All  mercuric  compounds  are  dis- 
sipated by  heating  only.  If  the  suspected  body  be  soluble,  a 
solution  of  it  may  be  made  and  into  it  a  strip  of  clean  copper 
placed.  Mercury  will  be  reduced  upon  it,  which  may  be  pol- 
ished to  a  silvery  appearance,  and  if  the  strip  be  afterwards 
heated  in  a  glass  tube  the  mercury  may  be  sublimed  off  the 
copper. 

Stannous  chloride  added  may  at  once  throw  down  a  gray 
precipitate  of  metallic  mercury  ;  but  if  it  do  so,  the  compound 
contained  mercury  in  the  state  of  sub-oxide.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  precipitate  appears  white  during  the  addition  of  this 
reagent,  and  before  sufficient  of  it  has  been  added,  the  mer- 
cury was  contained  as  protoxide.  The  first  white  precipitation 
depended  upon  the  formation  of  calomel,  which  latter  becomes 
reduced  to  the  metallic  state  upon  the  complete  addition  of 
the  tin  salt. 

Potash,  soda,  or  ammonia  gives  a  black  precipitate  in  salts 
of  the  suboxide,  insoluble  in  any  excess,  but  if  potash  gives  a 
reddish  precipitate,  and  ammonia  a  white  one,  the  mercury 
was  in  form  of  a  protoxide. 

Hydrochloric  acid  gives  no  precipitate  in  salts  of  protoxide, 
but  throws  down  white  subchloride  in  salts  of  suboxide. 

If  to  the  unknown  solution,  sulphide  of  hydrogen,  or  am- 
monium sulphide  be  added  very  cautiously,  and  a  black  pre- 
cipitate appears  at  once,  it  is  due  to  a  suboxide ;  but  if  the 
precipitate  is  at  first  white,  then  brown,  and  at  last  black,  it  is 
from  the  presence  of  protoxide.  This  last,  if  removed  and 


220  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

heated,  will  sublime  as  a  dark-red  cinnabar  or  vermilion.  The 
sulphides  of  either  oxide  are  quite  insoluble  in  excess  of  the 
above  precipitants,  or  in  potassic  cyanide. 

An  accurate  method  (Makins)  for  determining  mercury  in 
compounds  is  the  following  one :  The  compound  is  heated 
with  dry  lime,  being  placed  in  a  combustion  tube  18  inches 
long,  having  at  one  end  a  receiver — generally  blown  in  the 
tube.  Into  this  tube  a  small  plug  of  asbestos  is  put  close  to 
the  receiver  end.  Then  dry  fragments  of  quicklime  are  added 
until  they  reach  nearly  to  the  centre  of  the  tube,  next  the 
mercurial  compound ;  a  carefully  weighed  quantity  of  about 
20  grains  being  employed,  or  ranging  from  one  to  two 
grammes.  After  this  the  tube  is  fitted  to  its  front  end  with 
more  lime.  It  is  next  arranged  in  a  combustion  furnace.  To 
the  outer  end  of  the  tube  is  connected  a  small  tube  from  an 
apparatus  for  the  evolution  of  dry  hydrogen  gas  ;  a  current  of 
the  latter  being  passed  in,  the  combustion  tube  is  heated  to 
redness  by  hot  charcoal,  commencing  at  the  end  next  the  re- 
ceiver, and  carrying  it  back  to  the  outer  end.  After  the  full 
decomposition  of  the  specimen,  the  evolution  of  the  gas  is 
steadily  kept  up  till  all  watery  vapor  is  driven  out ;  after 
which  the  receiver  is  cut  off  and  weighed  with  its  contents, 
and  again  weighed  after  thoroughly  cleansing  out  the  mer- 
cury, when  the  loss  will  correspond  to  the  weight  of  the  lat- 
ter. If  nitric  acid  be  present  in  the  compound  to  be  ana- 
lyzed, quicklime  cannot  be  employed,  but  copper  turnings 
must  be  used  instead.  (Makins.) 

With  soluble  compounds  of  mercury  the  latter  may  be  esti- 
mated as  a  sulphide.  For  this  the  solution  is  to  be  acidula- 
ted with  hydrochloric  acid  and  excess  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
passed  in ;  allow  the  precipitated  sulphide  to  subside,  and 


ANTIMONY.  221 

then  filter,  wash  quickly  with  cold  water,  and  dry  at  a  mod- 
erately low  temperature,  and  weigh.  The  drying,  however,  is 
more  safely  and  accurately  performed  under  a  drying  glass 
with  sulphuric  acid  under  the  same  glass  for  absorption  of 
moisture,  trying  the  assay  on  the  scales  until  the  weight  is 
uniform. 


ANTIMONY. 

ANTIMONY.  As  a  metal  it  is  tin-white  and  volatile,  very 
brittle,  and  easily  reduced  to  powder.  It  has  been  reported 
as  native  at  Warren,  New  Jersey,  and  at  Prince  William, 
New  Brunswick,  Canada,  but  rare. 

Hardness  about  3  ;  gravity  6.6  to  6.7.  When  native,  said 
to  be  associated  with  silver,  iron,  or  arsenic.  Melting-point 
1150°  F.  (621°  C.). 

But  the  chief  ores  are  the  sulphide  known  as  STIBNITE,  con- 
taining 71.8  antimony,  28.2  sulphur,  and  VALENTINITE,  or 
white  antimony,  which  seems  to  be  derived  from  the  other  by 
the  oxidation  of  the  ore.  There  is  also  a  red  antimony  or 
KERMESITE.  The  first  is  the  usual  ore. 

STIBNITE  occurs  both  in  masses  and  in  crystals,  the  latter 
with  the  sides  deeply  striated ;  lustre  metallic  ;  often  colum- 
nar, and  color  and  streak  a  steel  gray,  or  lead  gray,  some- 
times iridescent.  It  is  sectile,  the  hardness  being  only  2  and 
gravity  4.5  to  4.6. 

Before  the  blowpipe  on  charcoal  it  fuses,  gives  off  both 
sulphurous  and  antimonal  fumes,  and  coats  the  coal  white 
with  oxide  of  antimony  ;  the  latter,  treated  by  the  R.  F., 
tinges  the  flame  a  greenish  blue.  It  is  perfectly  soluble  in 
hydrochloric  acid. 


222  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

It  occurs  in  the  United  States  in  very  large  deposits  at  San 
Emigdo,  Kern  Co.,  California,  where  the  vein  had  been  worked 
for  silver  many  years  ago.  The  vein  consists  of  quart?  and 
gray  antimony,  and  traverses  granite  rock,  northwest  and 
southeast,  with  a  dip  southwest  of  64°.  The  width  of  the 
vein  varies  from  a  few  inches  to  many  feet. 

At  the  Alta  claim  in  San  Benito  County,  there  is  a  dis- 
tinctively formed  vein  traversing  a  trachytic  or  plutonic  rock. 
The  thickness  varies  from  one  inch  to  twenty-four  inches,  and 
the  deposits  in  this  region  seem  to  be  very  great. 

Antimony  is  associated  with  cinnabar  in  several  places  in 
California. 

It  has  been  found  in  Nevada  about  twelve  miles  south  of 
Battle  Mountain  station,  on  the  Central  Pacific  Road,  in 
Humboldt  Co.  Here  the  veins  are  nearly  vertical  and  one 
hundred  feet  apart. 

Remarkable  deposits  of  stibnite  have  also  been  found  in 
Utah.  Here  the  antimony  occurs  just  above  the  junction  of 
the  sandstone  with  the  limestone  and  the  conglomerate ;  and 
in  some  places  the  ore  has  been  found  in  the  conglomerate, 
penetrating  irregularly  between  the  boulders,  and  without  the 
evidence  of  any  vein  formation.  One  mass  of  pure  stibnite 
weighed  about  3000  pounds,  and  was  sent  to  Salt  Lake  and 
thence  to  New  York.  This  mass,  like  most  of  the  ore  found 
in  the  sandstone,  has  a  very  strongly  defined  radial  structure, 
the  crystallization  being  in  close  aggregations  of  long,  needle- 
like  fibres,  or  prisms,  which  are  diverted  from  central  points 
or  nuclei,  giving  a  stellate  appearance  to  the  masses,  and  par- 
ticularly to  the  smaller  aggregations,  some  of  which  are  only 
a  few  inches  in  breadth.  In  the  large  masses  the  radial  fibres 
are  sometimes  18  inches  long,  and  form  dense  aggregations  of 


ANTIMONY.  223 

pure  ore  8  to  15  inches  thick  at  the  large  end,  tapering  to  a 
point  at  the  other  end.  (W.  P.  Blake,  in  the  Min.  Res.  of 
U.  S.,  1885.) 

It  is  found  in  various  foreign  lands,  and  recently  some  very 
fine  crystals  have  been  sent  from  Japan  from  the  mines  in 
Shikoku  to  the  Yale  College  collections.  It  has  also  been 
worked  in  Nova  Scotia,  Sonora,  Mexico ;  France,  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, Prussia,  Austria,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Italy,  and  Algeria. 
In  Victoria  a  lode  traverses  Silurian  strata,  and  contains 
about  2  ounces  of  gold  to  the  ton. 

Extraction.  The  extraction  of  antimony  from  its  ores  is  at- 
tended with  some  difficulty,  owing  to  its  volatility  and  affinity 
for  oxygen.  If  the  sulphide  is  much  mixed  with  veinstone, 
such  as  quartz,  it  is  subjected  to  the  preliminary  process  of 
liquation,  by  which  the  fused  sulphide  flows  away,  leaving  the 
rock  behind.  The  sulphur  is  extracted  by  heating  with  iron, 
alkalies  and  charcoal,  leaving  a  regulus  of  metal,  or  by  oxida- 
tion, leaving  the  antimony  in  the  condition  of  teroxide,  which 
is  afterwards  reduced  with  charcoal  and  alkalies  in  crucibles. 
The  metal  sinks  to  the  bottom,  and  the  overlying  residue  is 
known  as  crocus  of  antimony.  (Blake.) 

Uses  of  antimony.  Antimony  is  used  extensively  in  forming 
type  metal,  the  amount  of  antimony  being  from  17  to  20  per 
cent.  Britannia  metal  contains  about  from  10  to  16  parts, 
and  Babbitt  metal,  for  journals  and  various  bearings  of  ma- 
chinery, contains  8.3  per  cent.  Pewter  contains  about  7  per 
cent.,  and  various  metallic  compounds  of  softer  metals  owe 
their  hardness  to  certain  proportions  of  antimony.  Besides, 
it  is  used  in  medicinal  preparations,  in  pigments,  and  in  vul- 
canization of  rubber. 

Estimation  of  antimony.    A  method  of  quickly  making  com- 


224  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

mercial  determination  of  antimony  present  in  ores,  alloys  or 
slags,  is  described  by  Mr.  G.  T.  Dougherty.  "  The  substance 
is  first  reduced  to  a  button  by  fusion.  If  in  an  oxidized  state, 
it  is  melted  with  charcoal  and  argol ;  if  combined  with  sul- 
phur, it  is  decomposed  by  fusion  with  equal  parts  of  potassium 
cyanide  and  sodium  carbonate.  Ten  grains  is  the  most  con- 
venient quantity  to  use.  The  weighed  button  is  then  cut  into 
small  pieces,  placed  in  a  porcelain  dish,  and  digested  at  a  boil- 
ing heat  in  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  nitric  acid  and  water, 
until  the  solution  has  nearly  evaporated  and  the  lead  is  dis- 
solved, leaving  the  antimony  as  a  white,  insoluble  precipitate 
of  antimony  tetroxide  (Sb204),  which  is  separated  by  filtration 
from  the  diluted  solution,  and  is  dried  and  weighed."  In  a 
button  containing  lead  and  antimony  only  the  quantity  of 
lead  is  ascertained  by  deducting  the  weight  of  the  antimony, 
or  it  may  be  determined  from  the  filtrate  as  sulphate  of  lead, 
as  we  have  shown  in  another  part  of  this  work. 
Composition  of  Sb204 : — 

Sb2  244  79.22  per  cent. 

04  64  20.78     "      " 


308  100.00    "      " 

To  distinguish  antimony  from  bismuth.  Treat  a  hydrochloric 
solution  of  antimony  with  a  quantity  of  water,  an  immediate 
precipitate  of  an  oxychloride  falls.  This  may  be  dissolved  in 
tartaric  acid ;  the  addition  of  water  employed  would  have  pre- 
vented the  precipitation — it  now  dissolves  it.  This  solubility 
in  tartaric  acid  distinguishes  it  from  the  analogous  bismuth 
precipitation. 

Makins's  method  of  estimating  antimony  is  very  satisfac- 
tory, as  follows :  To  the  hydrochloric  solution  add  a  little  tar- 


BISMUTH.  225 

taric  acid  and  then  pass  in  dihydric  sulphide  (hydrogen  sul- 
phide). Thus  the  sulphide  of  antimony  is  thrown  down. 
And  now  all  excess  of  the  precipitant  must  be  got  rid  of  by 
driving  it  off  at  a  temperature  of  about  100°  F.  Wash,  dry, 
and  weigh  the  sulphide  ;  having  noted  the  weight,  next  dis- 
solve it  in  aqua  regia,  then  mix  this  with  a  solution  of  tartaric 
acid  and  precipitate  the  sulphuric  acid  (formed  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  the  sulphur  of  the  sulphide)  by  means  of  chloride  of 
barium.  From  the  weight  of  this  when  washed,  dried,  and 
ignited,  that  of  the  sulphur  is  got  at  and  the  loss  represents 
the  antimony. 

Caution. — In  passing  hydrogen  sulphide  through  the  hydro- 
chloric solution,  some  basic  antimony  chloride  may  remain 
unless  fully  saturated,  and  with  gentle  heat  this  secures  all  as 
aiitimonious  sulphide. 


BISMUTH 

Occurs  native,    with    occasional    traces  of   arsenic,   sulphur, 
and  tellurium.     The  chief  ore  is  the  native  metal. 

Hardness,  2  to  2.5  ;  gravity,  9.7.  Lustre,  metallic.  Streak 
and  color,  silver-white  with  a  reddish  hue.  Brittle  when 
cold,  somewhat  malleable  when  heated.  It  crystallizes  in 
rhombohedra,  nearly  approaching  the  cube.  These  may  be 
formed  artificially  in  beautiful  masses  by  melting  a  quantity 
of  the  metal  in  a  ladle  or  a  pot  and  after  removing  it  into 
some  glowing  coals  or  heated  sand,  allowing  the  bulk  to  cool 
slowly  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  cooling  action  commenc- 
ing at  the  upper  surface,  the  heat  is  kept  up  by  covering  the 
vessel  with  a  shallow  iron  basin  into  which  a  quantity  of  hot 
fuel  is  placed.  As  soon  as  a  crust  of  metal  is  presumed  to 
15 


226  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

have  formed  round  the  sides  and  top,  it  is  pierced  at  one  side 
by  a  red-hot  iron  and  the  remaining  fluid  metal  is  poured  out. 
If,  then,  when  cold,  the  upper  covering  be  sawn  off,  the  whole 
interior  surface  will  be  found  to  have  crystallized  in  most  re- 
gular forms  of  hollow  cubes  and  tetrahedra. 

Bismuth  fuses  at  507°  F.  =  264°  C.,  and  when  added  to 
other  metals  it  lowers  their  melting-points  in  an  extraordinary 
manner.  At  a  high  temperature  it  burns  somewhat  like  zinc, 
with  a  bluish  flame,  giving  off  fumes  of  yellow  oxide. 

Nitric  acid  dissolves  the  metal  readily,  sulphuric  acid  only 
upon  boiling,  and  hydrochloric  acid  has  but  little  action 
upon  it. 

It  expands  on  cooling  after  fusion  to  about  one-thirty-second 
of  increase  in  bulk. 

Detection  of  bismuth.  Its  salts  are  for  the  most  part  devoid 
of  color ;  some  are  soluble,  others  insoluble ;  the  soluble  salts 
redden  litmus  paper. 

Dihydric  sulphide  or  ammonio-hydric  sulphide  throws  down 
a  black  sulphide,  insoluble  in  excess  of  either  precipitant. 

The  alkalies,  potash,  soda,  or  ammonia,  throw  down  white 
hydrated  oxide.  Upon  boiling  this  precipitate  it  becomes 
yellow. 

Potassic  chromate  throws  down  a  yellow  chromate  of  bis- 
muth, which  may  be  distinguished  from  the  corresponding 
lead  precipitate  in  being  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid  and  in- 
soluble in  caustic  potash. 

To  distinguish  it  from  lead,  sulphuric  acid  or  soluble  sul- 
phates produce  no  precipitate,  and  if  we  evaporate  with  sul- 
phuric acid  in  excess  to  dry  ness  the  residual  mass  will  be 
perfectly  soluble  in  water  acidified  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid. 

Under  the  blowpipe  a  salt  of  bismuth  heated  upon  charcoal 


CHROMIUM.  227 

with  sodic  carbonate  in  the  inner  or  reducing  flame  yields  a 
bead  of  the  metal,  surrounded  by  a  crust  of  yellow  oxide. 
This  may  be  distinguished  from  lead  by  the  brittleness  of  the 
bead  under  the  hammer.  The  yellow  crust  is  the  sesquioxide 
and  is  of  a  deep  orange  color  while  hot,  but  yellow  on  cooling. 

Bismuth  occurs  in  the  United  States  twelve  miles  west  of 
Beaver  City,  Utah,  in  a  magnesium  limestone,  but  the  entire 
matter  assays  only  from  one  to  six  per  cent,  of  the  metal.  Also 
in  Granite  district,  Beaver  County.  It  occurs  in  several  places 
in  Colorado,  in  Lake  City  district,  and  near  Golden  some  rich 
specimens  have  been  found.  Also  near  Tucson,  Arizona,  and 
in  Inyo  County,  California  ;  and  some  remarkably  pure  speci- 
mens have  been  reported  as  found  on  the  flank  of  Mount 
Nostovia,  Alaska.  There  is  no  commercial  production  of 
bismuth  in  the  United  States  as  yet,  though  the  prospects  are 
fair,  and  a  producing  mine  would  be  valuable. 

Metallic  bismuth  is  used  in  making  fusible  alloys,  as  soft 
solder,  plugs  for  safety-valves,  and  in  stereotype  moulds.  Also 
as  an  amalgam  in  silvering  glass  globes.  The  subnitrate  is 
used  under  the  name  of  pearl-white,  as  in  enamels,  in  porce- 
lain, in  optical  glass,  and  in  medicine.  The  nitrate  is  used  as 
a  mordant. 


CHROMIUM. 

The  only  useful  ore  of  chromium  is  that  known  as  chrome- 
iron  or  iron-stone,  which  is  a  mixture  of  sesquioxide  of  chro- 
mium with  oxide  of  iron,  and  whose  composition  may  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  formula  FeCr204,  but  the  chromium  may  in 
part  be  replaced  by  iron  and  the  latter  may  be  partly  replaced 


228  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

by  magnesium.  Aluminium  is  sometimes  present,  and  silica 
may  be  found  in  the  sand  ore,  or  ore  containing  chromite  in 
the  form  of  small  grains.  The  purest  ore  is  sometimes  found 
in  lumps  weighing  several  pounds. 

The  mineralogical  name  is  chromite,  which  in  its  typical 
form  contains  32  parts  oxide  of  iron,  68  parts  oxide  of  chro- 
mium, but  in  analysis  may  contain  as  high  as  36  parts  oxide 
of  iron,  39.51  sesquioxide  of  chromium,  13  sesquioxide  of 
aluminium,  and  10.60  silica,  which  proportions  are  found  in  a 
Baltimore  specimen. 

Hardness  5.5 ;  grav.  4.32  to  4.56.  Lustre  submetallic, 
streak  brown,  color  between  iron  black  and  brownish-black. 
Brittle,  sometimes  magnetic. 

Before  the  blowpipe.  In  the  O.  F.  infusible ;  in  the  I.  F. 
becomes  slightly  rounded  on  the  edges,  and  then  is  found  to 
be  magnetic.  With  borax  and  salt  of  phosphorus  it  gives 
beads,  which,  while  hot.  show  only  a  reaction  for  iron,  but  on 
cooling  become  chrome-green ;  the  green  color  is  heightened 
by  fusion,  on  charcoal,  with  metallic  tin.  (Dana.)  Not 
soluble  in  acids ;  soluble  with  heat  in  bisulphate  of  potash,  or 
soda. 

Its  occurrence  was  first  noticed,  in  the  commercial  way, 
many  years  ago,  at  Bare  Hill,  Maryland  ;  but  these  deposits 
became  exhausted,  and  very  large  deposits  were  found  in 
Harford  and  Cecil  counties,  Maryland,  and  in  Lancaster 
County,  Pennsylvania.  The  ore  is  extremely  infusible,  but 
after  many  improvements  the  final  results,  as  at  present  un- 
derstood, lead  to  the  following  treatment :  The  decomposi- 
tion of  the  ore  is  effected  by  powdering  the  mineral  by  means 
of  good  millstones,  heating  it  for  some  hours  in  a  reverbera- 
tory  furnace  with  potassium  carbonate  and  lime  in  certain 


CHROMIUM.  229 

proportions,  and  dissolving  out  the  chromium  from  the  fused 
mass  by  water,  in  the  form  of  potassium  chromate,  which  is 
converted  into  bichromate  by  sulphuric  acid.  Although  this 
is  put  down  in  the  text-books  as  an  easy  process,  it  requires 
great  experience  and  skill  to  effect  results  which  will  make 
the  reductions  perfect,  and  at  such  rates  as  will  compete  in 
the  world's  markets.  This  the  skilled  firm  in  Baltimore, 
Maryland,  by  its  long  experience  and  by  devices  known  to 
itself,  is  able  to  do. 

Recently  deposits  of  chrome  ore  have  been  found  in  Jack- 
son County,  North  Carolina,  also  in  Fairfax  County,  Virginia. 
But  the  largest  deposits  are  now  found  in  California,  in  Del 
Norte  County,  in  Sonoma,  San  Luis  Obispo,  and  in  Placer 
counties,  and  in  many  other  counties  of  California. 

These  deposits  are  not  found  in  veins,  but  in  pockets,  and 
may  at  any  time,  in  certain  locations  now  rich,  become  ex- 
hausted ;  hence  it  is  important  to  keep  up  the  supply  by  addi- 
tional discoveries. 

IN  THE  QUANTITATIVE  analysis  of  chrome  iron  ore  the 
assay  should  be  reduced  to  the  finest  powder  possible,  and 
time  is  saved  by  paying  careful  attention  to  this  work. 
Bisulphate  of  potassium  is  added  in  about  three  times  the 
weight  and  slowly  fused  with  it  in  a  platinum  crucible  at  red 
heat ;  here  again  patience  and  long-continued  heating  must 
be  had  until  with  the  smooth  glass  rod  or  platinum  wire  no 
particles  can  be  felt.  Alkaline  carbonate  will  not  do,  but 
caustic  potassa  with  one-third  caustic  soda  will  in  a  longer 
time  make  a  good  solution.  The  fused  mass  is  extracted 
with  water,  which  dissolves  the  chromate  of  potassium 
together  with  the  excess  of  potassa ;  the  oxide  of  iron  remains 
behind,  together,  perhaps,  with  a  small  quantity  of  the  unde- 


230  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

composed  ore  if  the  fusion  at  first  was  not  complete ;  and  this 
must  be  separated  from  the  sesquioxide  of  iron  by  hydro- 
chloric acid ;  from  the  hydrochloric  solution  the  iron  is  pre- 
cipitated by  ammonia,  and  the  chromic  acid  in  the  aqueous 
solution  is  reduced  to  the  sesquioxide  of  chromium  by  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  addition  of  a  little  alcohol.  If  the  mineral 
contained  alumina,  it  will  be  found  in  the  aqueous  solution 
with  the  alkaline  chromate,  and  it  will  be  precipitated 
together  with  the  oxide  of  chromium,  from  which  it  is  sep- 
arated in  the  following  way :  After  taking  the  weight  of  the 
chromium  oxide  and  alumina  compound,  fuse  the  mixture  as 
in  the  case  of  the  chrome  iron  assay  at  first ;  convey  the  pre- 
cipitate (obtained  by  adding  ammonia  to  the  solution)  con- 
tainining  the  two  oxides  (chromium  and  aluminium)  into  a 
hot  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  potassa,  and  boil  the 
whole  down  until  near  solidification ;  when  quite  cold,  water 
is  added,  and  the  whole  of  the  alumina  dissolves  without 
carrying  with  it  a  trace  of  oxide  of  chromium.  (Schaff  haeutl.) 


COBALT. 

This  metal  is  not  used  in  the  metallic  state,  but  when  re- 
duced to  that  state  it  is  usually  associated  with  nickel,  since 
the  nickel  ores  contain  cobalt.  As  nickel  is  slightly  mag- 
netic the  cobalt  ores  are  in  some  cases  also  very  slightly 
magnetic,  but  only  from  the  presence  of  nickel. 

The  ores  are  sulphoarsenide  (COBALT  GLANCE)  and  tin- 
white  arsenide  of  cobalt  (SMALTINE).  ZAFFRE  is  an  impure 
oxide  formed  by  roasting  the  ore  with  twice  its  weight  of 
quartz  sand.  The  metal  itself  may  be  prepared  by  first  roast- 


COBALT.  231 

ing  the  ore  at  a  moderate  temperature,  in  order  to  get  rid  of 
as  much  arsenic  as  possible.  It  is  next  dissolved  in  nitro- 
hydrochloric  acid,  evaporated  to  dryness,  and  the  residue 
dissolved  in  water.  The  solution  is  then  precipitated  by 
dihydric  sulphide ;  thus,  all  metals  except  the  cobalt  and  iron 
go  down.  After  filtering,  the  clear  liquid  is  boiled  with  a 
little  strong  nitric  acid  in  order  to  peroxidize  the  iron,  after 
which  potassic  carbonate  is  added  to  throw  the  whole  down. 
Then,  after  washing  this  precipitate,  it  is  digested  in  oxalic 
acid,  which  converts  the  cobaltous  carbonate  into  an  insolu- 
ble oxalate,  while  it  dissolves  out  the  iron.  After  washing 
the  cobalt  salt,  intensely  heating  it  in  a  porcelain  cruci- 
ble will  at  once  reduce  the  metal.  The  crucible  must  be  en- 
cased in  a  clay  one,  as  the  heat  must  not  only  be  as  strong  as 
can  be  well  commanded,  but  must  also  be  maintained  from 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  to  an  hour.  (Makins.)  The  heat 
should  be  nearly  that  for  reducing  iron  ore. 

Cobalt  is  a  reddish-gray  metal,  crystalline,  with  specific 
gravity  8.95  ;  fusible  at  a  temperature  somewhat  below  that  of 
iron. 

Various  cobalt  minerals  have  been  found  where  neither  the 
amount  of  the  mineral  nor  the  per  cent,  of  cobalt  would  pay 
for  the  working ;  but  they  occur  in  Carroll  Co.,  Maryland,  in 
Colorado,  at  Granite,  in  New  Mexico,  in  Nevada,  and  at  Mine 
la  Motte,  Missouri.  The  important  source  has  been  at  the 
nickel  mine  at  near  Gap,  Lancaster  County,  Pa.  As  mined 
the  per  cent,  of  cobalt  is  only  0.1,  and  only  the  nickel  asso- 
ciated with  it  gives  any  profit  in  the  working. 

The  only  use  at  present  for  cobalt  is  as  a  pigment — to  give 
color  to  glass,  to  correct  the  yellow  color  in  pottery,  and  in 
decoration  work. 


232  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  plate  with  cobalt  as  with 
nickel,  but  they  have  shown  its  inferiority,  because  cobalt 
plating  oxidized  more  rapidly  than  nickel,  and  was  more 
costly. 

The  metallic  value  of  cobalt,  nominally,  is  $14  per  pound. 
Cobalt  oxide  has  varied  from  $2.50  to  $3  for  twenty  years, 
except  at  one  period,  lately. 

Compounds  of  this  metal  may  be  detected  under  the  blow- 
pipe by  the  intense  blue  they  give  in  the  oxidizing  flame,  in 
borax. 

The  separation  of  cobalt  from  nickel  is  a  very  nice  opera- 
tion, requiring  care.  The  solution  of  the  protoxides  of  these 
metals  must  be  free  from  other  oxides,  those  of  potassium  and 
sodium  excepted ;  hydrocyanic  acid  in  excess,  and  then 
caustic  potassa,  are  added  ;  it  is  then  warmed  until  all  is  dis- 
solved, when  it  becomes  a  reddish-yellow  in  color.  It  is  then 
heated  to  boiling,  to  expel  excess  of  hydrocyanic  acid.  A 
double  cyanide*  of  cobalt  and  potassium  is  first  formed,  which 
is  next  converted  into  cobalticyanide  of  potassium,  hydrogen 
being  evolved.  The  double  cyanide  of  nickel  and  potassium 
is  unchanged.  Some  mercuric  oxide  (red  oxide)  is  now  pow- 
dered, washed,  and  added,  and  the  mixture  boiled.  The 
nickel  is  precipitated  partly  as  nickelous  oxide,  and  partly  as 
cyanide,  mercuric  cyanide  being  produced  and  at  the  same 
time  passing  into  solution.  The  nickel  precipitate  is  now 
washed  and  ignited,  and  the  residue  being  a  pure  nickelous 
oxide,  a  dirty  grayish -green  powder,  is  weighed  and  estimated. 
Composition,  NiO  =  59  + 16  =  75.  Ni  78.67  per  cent., 
0  21.33.  (Liebig.) 

The  cobalt  in  the  filtrate  may  now  be  determined  by  first 
nearly  neutralizing  by  nitric  acid,  then  adding  a  solution  of 


ALUMINIUM.  233 

mercurous  nitrate  as  neutral  as  possible ;  a  precipitate  now 
falls  which  is  mercurous  cobalticyanide ;  this  washed,  ignited, 
and  weighed,  is  pure  cobaltous  oxide  [the  per  cent,  of  cobalt 
being  78.67].  (Wohler.) 


ALUMINIUM. 

Aluminium  is  a  white  metal  very  nearly  approaching 
silver  in  appearance.  Spec.  grav.  2.583.  It  melts  at  a  red 
heat,  about  1300°  Fah.,  but  will  not  vaporize.  It  changes 
very  little  at  ordinary  temperature  even  when  moderately 
heated,  but  if  heated  in  a  stream  of  oxygen  it  burns  brightly. 
Nitric  acid  does  not  affect  aluminium,  sulphuric  acid  only  dis- 
solves it  on  boiling,  while  it  is  readily  soluble  in  hydrochloric 
acid  (Richter).  But  the  action  of  these  acids  is  greatly  modi- 
fied by  the  purity  of  the  metal  and  also  by  the  mechanical 
conditions  under  which  the  metal  has  been  prepared,  ham- 
mered aluminium  being  least  attacked,  rolled  metal  next,  and 
then  the  drawn  metal,  while  cast  metal  is  much  more  easily 
attacked  than  either.  At  the  same  time  the  effect  of  alumin- 
ium upon  the  human  system  is  far  less  injurious  than 
either  that  of  copper,  tin,  or  zinc ;  in  fact,  some  of  the  best 
spring  waters  contain  some  traces  of  aluminium.  Caustic 
alkalies,  in  solution,  readily  attack  it.  In  ammonia,  it  is 
turned  gray,  but  does  not  lose  strength  or  weight.  Chlorine, 
bromine,  iodine  and  fluorine  attack  aluminium  and  corrode 
it.  It  is,  however,  not  affected  by  sulphuretted  hydrodrogen 
or  other  sulphur  vapors. 

The  SPECIFIC  HEAT  of  aluminium  is  .2143,  water  being 
1.0000,  that  is,  the  same  quantity  of  heat  that  would  raise  a 


234  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

mass  of  aluminium  .2143  of  a  degree  Cent,  would  raise  the 
same  mass  of  water  1.0000  full  degree  Cent.  The  spec,  heat 
of  gray  iron  is  0.1268,  of  steel  0.1175,  of  wrought  iron  0.1137, 
nickel  0.1086,  zinc  0.0951,  brass  0.0939,  silver  0.0570,  tin 
0.0562,  gold  and  platinum  0.0324. 

THE  CONDUCTIVITY  of  heat,  taking  silver  as  100  (Weider- 
mann  and  Franz),  is  38  for  unannealed  wire  of  98.52  per  cent, 
aluminium,  and  38.90  in  the  same  wire  annealed.  The  fol- 
lowing table  ennables  us  to  compare  its  conductivity  with 
that  of  other  metals. 

Silver,  100 Tin,  14.5. 

Copper,  73.6 Iron,  11.9. 

Gold,  53.2 Steel,  11.6. 

Annealed  Aluminium,  38.9 Platinum,  8.6 

Unannealed  Aluminium,  38.0 Bismuth,  1.8. 

THE  ELECTRIC  CONDUCTIVITY  of  aluminium,  as  compared 
with  copper,  Mr.  C.  K.  McGee,  of  the  University  of  Michigan, 
has  determined.  He  found  that  in  an  aluminium  unan- 
nealed wire  .0325  inch  in  diameter  the  electrical  resistance 
was  .05749  "  legal  ohms  "  of  one  yard,  while  that  of  pure  cop- 
per wire  of  same  diameter  was  only  .03150  ;  temperature  57° 
Fah.  In  the  annealed  aluminium  wire  of  same  dimensions  it 
was  .05484.  The  alumina  was  98.52  per  cent.  pure. 

Pure  aluminium  shows  no  polarity.  An  ingot  of  alumin- 
ium containing  1.5  per  cent,  iron  showed  a  very  faint 
polarity  ;  with  2  per  cent,  iron  the  polarity  was  distinct  and 
very  decidedly  marked.  (The  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company 
Report.) 

Aluminium  has  become  important  only  within  a  few  years 
past.  Its  ores  are  a  proper  object  for  research  as  truly  as  those 
of  other  metals.  Forty  years  ago  aluminium  was  as  much  a 


ALUMINIUM.  235 

chemical  curiosity  as  any  one  of  the  rare  metals  is  to-day. 
Through  the  efforts  of  St.  Claire  Deville  it  first  acquired  a 
commercial  character,  and  its  extraction  was  transferred  from 
the  sphere  of  laboratory  experiment  to  become  a  metallurgical 
process.  Since  his  day  the  development  of  electro-metallurgy, 
largely  due  to  the  attempts  to  produce  aluminium  economi- 
cally, has  increased  to  such  an  extent  that  the  chemical  pro- 
cess founded  by  him  has  now  given  way  to  the  electrical  form 
of  metallurgy  in  extracting  the  new  metal.  Following  this 
change  in  metallurgy,  and  the  increase  in  its  production,  at- 
tention has  been  drawn  to  other  materials  as  sources  of  the 
metal  than  the  cryolite  formerly  used,  and  new  occurrences  of 
the  ore  of  aluminium,  which  has  now  acquired  an  increased 
value,  are  sought  for.  This  increase  of  commercial  demand, 
in  turn,  has  caused  the  new  ore  and  its  deposits  to  be  studied 
and  explained  by  the  aid  of  the  most  recent  scientific  methods. 
From  the  technical  and  industrial  point  of  view,  we  have  now 
to  deal  with  ores  of  aluminium  as  well  as  with  ores  of  iron. 

ORES  OF  ALUMINIUM.  As  previously  mentioned,  cryolite 
from  Greenland  was  formerly  the  only  source.  No  workable 
deposits  of  cryolite  have  been  authentically  reported  in  this 
country.  The  deposit  at  the  southern  base  of  Pike's  Peak, 
Colorado,  described  in  Bulletin  No.  20  of  the  U.  S.  Geological 
Survey,  has  been  shown  to  be  only  of  mineralogical  interest. 
Bauxite  deposits  and  "  alum  beds"  of  considerable  extent  have, 
however,  been  found,  and  the  former  mineral  is  used  as  a 
source  of  aluminium.  It  is  the  ore  of  aluminium,  and  occurs 
in  Georgia,  Alabama  and  Arkansas. 

Bauxite  received  its  name  from  Baux,  a  village  in  the  south 
of  France,  where  it  was  first  found,  and  the  more  highly  ferri- 
ferous was  regarded  and  worked  as  an  iron  ore,  but  proved  too 


236  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

refractory.  It  sometimes  ran  as  high  as  42  per  cent,  metallic 
iron.  The  analysis  by  Berthier  revealed  its  true  character. 

M.  Ange*  describes  the  bauxite  of  Var  and  Hdrault  and 
gives  analyses  of  it.  Over  20,000  tons  were  being  mined  in 
this  region  annually  at  the  time  of  writing  his  report  (1888). 
In  the  red  mineral  of  Var  druses  occur  with  white  bauxite 
running  as  high  as  85  per  cent.  A12O3,  and  15  per  cent. 
H20,  corresponding  to  the  formula  A1203+H20.  Bauxite  is 
also  found  in  Germany,  Ireland,  Austria  and  Italy,  and  is 
supposed  to  be  derived  from  basalt.  Well  known  localities  of 
bauxite  in  Germany  are  the  southern  slope  of  the  Westerwald 
near  Miihlbach,  Hadamar,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Lesser 
Steinheim,  near  Hanau,  and  especially  the  western  slope  of 
the  Vogelsberg.  The  bauxite  of  the  Vogelsberg  occurs  in 
scattered  lumps  or  small  masses,  partly  on  the  surface  and 
partly  imbedded  in  a  grayish  white  to  reddish  brown  clay, 
which  contains  also  similar  masses  of  basaltic  iron  ore  and 
fragments  of  more  or  less  weathered  basalt  itself. 

The  American  occurrences  of  bauxite  so  far  as  observed  are 
in  Alabama,  Georgia  and  Arkansas.  From  a  statement  by 
Prof.  Eugene  A.  Smith,  State  Geologist  of  Alabama,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  mining  of  bauxite  was  begun  in  Alabama  in 
November  1891,  by  the  Southern  Bauxite  Mining  and  Manu- 
facturing Company  of  Piedmont,  Alabama.  In  July  1892, 
the  Republic  Mining  and  Manufacturing  Company  of  Her- 
mitage, Georgia,  secured  a  lease  of  the  mines  of  the  Bass 
Furnace  Company  at  Rock  Run,  Cherokee  County.  The  ore 
goes  to  Philadelphia  and  Natrona,  Pennsylvania ;  Syracuse, 
Buffalo,  Brooklyn,  New  York,  and  other  places.  It  comes 

*Bull.  Soc.  Geol.  de  France,  16,  p.  345,  1888. 


ALUMINIUM.  237 

into  competition  with  the  ore  from  Baux,  France,  which  can 
be  purchased  at  a  lower  price,  but  it  is  claimed  by  the  manu- 
facturers that  the  Alabama  ore  is  more  soluble  and  therefore 
more  valuable,  though  containing  slightly  less  alumina,  the 
latter  running  from  56  to  60  per  cent,  average  car-load  analy- 
sis. Of  the  insoluble  matter  silica  is  the  chief  ingredient. 
The  ore  contains  2  to  3  per  cent,  of  titanic  acid  and  will  aver- 
age from  25  to  30  per  cent,  of  water.  The  ore  occurs  asso- 
ciated with  limonites  and  kaolins  in  irregular  beds,  in  the 
region  underlaid  by  the  Knox  dolomite  of  the  Lower  Silurian 
formation.  In  Alabama  these  occurrences  are  always  near  to 
the  foothills  of  the  mountains  formed  of  the  Weisner  quartz- 
ite  or  sandstone,  which  in  Alabama  is  a  member  of  the  Cam- 
brian. The  bauxite  therefore  seems  to  be  associated  chiefly 
with  the  lower  beds  of  the  Knox  dolomite.  The  best  known 
occurrences  are  near  Rock  Run  furnace  in  Cherokee  County, 
where  it  has  been  followed  for  a  few  miles  towards  the 
Georgia  line. 

The  Georgia  bauxite  occurs  in  the  same  formation.  Mr.  J. 
W.  Spencer,  State  Geologist  of  Georgia,  gives  the  following 
account  of  its  occurrence  : 

"  Bauxite  occurs  in  the  residual  clay  from  decomposition  of 
the  Knox  (calciferous)  dolomite  formation,  which  series  is 
greatly  developed  in  Georgia.  The  principal  belt  commences 
near  Adairsville  and  widens  out,  extending  in  a  southwest 
direction  to  Alabama.  It  occurs  in  the  vicinity  of  brown  iron 
and  manganese  ores.  Indeed,  the  bauxite-bearing  portion  of 
the  Knox  series  is  nearly  coincident  with  the  manganese  de- 
posits. It  occurs  in  pockets,  often  of  great  extent,  and  is 
usually  covered  with  a  few  feet  of  clayey  surface.  A  kaolin 
is  often  associated  with  it.  It  is  mostly  in  concretionary 


238 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


nodules  forming  large  or  small  kidney-shaped  masses  scattered 
through  the  clay.  Much  of  the  bauxite  is  light  colored,  but 
other  portions  contain  much  iron.  At  one  locality  Gibbsite 
occurs  associated  with  it." 

The  Arkansas  bauxites  occur  in  territory  areas  and  in  the 
neighborhood  of  eruptive  syenites,  to  which  they  seem  to  be 
genetically  related.  The  mineral  is  pisolitic  in  structure  and 
varies  in  color  and  composition.  It  has  been  mined  for  iron, 
some  specimens  yielding  50  per  cent,  metallic  iron,  and  is  of 
great  abundance.  The  wide  variations  in  the  composition  of 
bauxite  are  shown  by  the  following  analyses : 

Analysis  of  Bauxite  from,  Baux. 


Compact 
variety, 
per  cent. 

Pisiform, 
per  cent. 

Hard  and  com- 
pact calcareous 
paste, 
per  cent. 

Bauxite 
from 
Calabres. 
per  cent. 

SiO2  

2.8 

4.8 

2.0 

ALO, 

57  6 

55.4 

30.3 

33.2 

FLO, 

25.3 

24.8 

34.9 

48.8 

H,O. 

10.8 

11.6 

22.1 

8.6 

TiO.  . 

3.1 

3.2 

1.6 

CaCO3  

0.4 

0.2 

12.7 

Corundum    .   . 

5.8 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

100.00 

ALUMINIUM. 
Analyses  of  German  Bauxite. 


239 


From 
Wockhein. 
per  cent. 

From 
Vogelsberg. 
per  cent. 

SiO* 

6  29 

giO2  

1  10 

Al  O, 

64  24 

ALO, 

5092 

Fe  O, 

2  40 

Fe,O, 

15.70 

CaO 

0  85 

CaO  

0.80 

Mg-O 

0.38 

MgO 

0.16 

sos  

0.20 

H9O  (iffn.)  . 

27.75 

P9O,=  . 

0.46 

ELO  (100°)  . 

0.85 

H2O          

25  74 

TiO   ... 

3  20 

100.00 

100.00 

Analyses  of  Alabama  Bauxite.* 


From 

Jacksonville, 

Jacksonville, 

Jacksonville, 

Cherokee 

Calhoun 

Calhoun 

Calhoun 

county. 

county. 

county. 

county, 

red. 

white. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

SiO,  . 

37.87 

18.67 

7.73 

23.72 

ALO,  . 

39.44 

45.94 

47.52 

41.38 

Fe,Oo. 

2.27 

11.86 

19.95 

0  85 

H2O  hygroscopic  .   . 

9.20 

1.40 

) 

vJ»OtJ 

\      23.57 

23.72 

H2O  combined  .   .  • 

12.80 

21.20 

J 

TiO2  .... 







*  Analyst,  Dr.  Wm.  B.  Phillips. 


240 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 
Analyses  of  Georgia  Bauxite.* 


1. 

2. 

3. 

, 

5 
o. 

/> 

7. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

SiO2.   . 

19.56 

41.47 

2.56 

8.29 

6.62 

35.88           1.98 

A1203  • 

52.13 

39.75 

56.10         58.61 

59.82 

45.21         61.25 

Fe.0.  . 

1.12           1.62 

10.64           2.63 

2.16 

0.52           1.82 

H2O.   . 

24.21 

16.14 

30.10         27.42 

31.10 

17.13         31.43 

TiO2.  . 

2.08 



3.15 





2.38 

| 

99.10 

98.98 

99.30       100.10 

99.70 

98.74         98.86 

1 

i 

Number  7  is  on  the  Barnsley  estate,  Dinwood  Station.  It  is 
a  large  deposit,  and  is  being  now  largely  opened  for  working. 
It  always  contains  titanic  acid,  and  usually  traces  of  alkalies, 
etc. 

Bauxite  from,  Pulaski  County,  Arkansas. 


Black. 

Re 

d. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

per  cent. 

SiO2  

10.13 

11.48 

5.11 

4.89 

3.34 

ALOo 

55  59 

57.62 

55.89 

46.40 

58.60 

Fe,(X 

6.08 

1.83 

19.45 

22.15 

9.11 

H2O  

28.99 

28.63 

17.39 

26.68 

28.63 

100.79 

99.56 

97.84 

100.12 

99.68 

The  desired  element  in  this  mineral  substance  is  the  alu- 
mina, and  the  whiter  it  is  the  better  for  the  aluminium  pro- 

*  Analyst,  Prof.  H.  C.  White. 


....;.    ._.        ALUMINIUM.  .  _  241 

duced,  since  iron  is  an  unwelcome  impurity,  even  more  so  than 
the  silicon  which  is  frequently  present. 

The  best  mineral  from  Georgia  and  Alabama  has  a  cream- 
white  color,  and  only  needs  to  be  incinerated  with  soda  ash  to 
form  aluminate  of  soda,  which  is  dissolved  and  decanted  off, 
and  freed  from  the  impurities  of  silica,  oxide  of  iron  and 
titanic  acid,  which  have  not  been  acted  upon  and  are  insolu- 
ble in  the  hot  water  used  for  solution  of  the  aluminate  of  soda. 
From  this  solution  alumina  is  precipitated  by  passing  carbonic 
acid  formed  by  the  distillation  of  carbonic  acid  from  limestone 
through  the  solution,  and  by  agitation.  The  carbonic  acid 
re-forms  carbonate  of  soda  from  the  aluminate,  and  precipitates 
the  pure  alumina  freely.  This  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tank,  and  is  afterward  thoroughly  washed  with  hot  water  and 
dried  and  then  heated  for  a  considerable  time  at  a  high  red 
heat  to  drive  off  the  water  of  hydration,  to  make  the  ore  ready 
for  the  production  of  aluminium  by  the  Hall  process  used  by 
the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company,  which  will  be  described 
later  on. 

Analysis  of  Bauxite.  The  method  of  analysis  used  by  the 
Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory,  Limited,  is  as  follows :  Mix 
and  fuse  five-tenths  of  a  gramme  of  very  finely  powdered 
bauxite  with  8  grammes  of  powdered  bisulphate  of  potassium. 
The  fusion  should  be  made  in  a  thin-walled  platinum  crucible 
of  about  400  cubic  centimeters  capacity ;  the  cover  of  the 
crucible  should  fit  well.  During  the  first  fifteen  minutes  the 
crucible  should  be  on  a  platinum-wire  triangle  over  a  small 
flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner.  The  burner  flame  should  be  pro- 
tected from  drafts  by  a  sheet-iron  chimney,  and  the  flame  at 
first  should  just  touch  the  crucible  bottom.  At  intervals  of 
five  minutes  remove  the  cover  carefully  and  give  the  contents 
16 


242  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

of  the  crucible  a  rotating  motion,  holding  the  crucible  firmly 
in  the  tongs.  At  the  end  of  fifteen  minutes  turn  up  the  flame 
till  the  lower  quarter  of  the  crucible  is  red-hot ;  agitate  fre- 
quently as  before.  In  ten  minutes  more  turn  on  flame  full 
and  heat  for  five  minutes  with  shaking.  Cool,  add  2  grammes 
more  of  bisulphate  of  potassium,  and  gradually  bring  to  a 
homogeneous  fusion,  but  do  not  heat  long  enough  to  drive  off 
the  free  sulphuric  acid. 

Pour  out  the  liquid  fusion  into  a  warmed  and  dry  platinum 
dish  ;  the  cake  cools  and  does  not  adhere  to  the  dish.  Place 
together  with  the  crucible  and  cover  in  a  200-cubic  centimeter 
beaker.  Add  150  cubic  centimeters  of  water.  Heat  to  104°F., 
with  frequent  stirring,  until  all  soluble  matter  is  dissolved. 

Silica.  Filter  into  two  300-cubic  centimeter  beakers  and 
wash  the  residues.  Ignite  and  weigh  as  silica.  Make  correc- 
tion for  silica  if  the  bisulphate  of  potassium  contained  any. 
Also  test  the  silica  with  hydrofluoric  acid,  aud  if  any  residue 
is  found  fuse  it  with  a  little  bisulphate  of  potassium,  dissolve 
in  water  and  add  it  to  the  main  solution. 

The  filtrate  from  the  silica  contains  the  titanic  acid,  alumina 
and  oxide  of  iron. 

Titanic  acid.  Add  dilute  nitric  acid  to  slight  precipitation, 
not  cleared  by  stirring.  Add  dilute  (1  to  3)  sulphuric  acid 
until  this  precipitate  just  redissolves.  Add  four  drops  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid  to  the  solution  and  dilute  to  250 
cubic  centimeters.  Saturate  with  sulphurous  acid  gas.  Heat 
slowly  to  boiling,  and  boil  gently  for  three-quarters  of  an 
hour.  Add  a  little  strong  sulphurous  acid  water  occasionally 
to  keep  the  iron  in  ferrous  state. 

Filter  through  double  filters  and  wash  with  hot  water.  Ig- 
nite and  weigh  titanic  acid. 


ALUMINIUM.  243 

The  filtrate  is  boiled  until  free  from  sulphurous  acid ;  two 
cubic  centimeters  of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and  two 
cubic  centimeters  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  are  added,  and 
the  solution  boiled  for  fifteen  minutes  to  thoroughly  oxidize 
the  iron.  It  is  then  diluted  to  250  cubic  centimeters  with  hot 
water  and  ammonia  added  in  slight  excess.  Boil  gently  for 
five  minutes  and  then  warm  for  five  minutes  more.  Long 
boiling  gives  a  precipitate  which  retains  potassium  salts  when 
washed.  Filter  and  wash  thoroughly  with  hot  water.  Wash 
the  precipitates  off  the  filters  back  into  the  beakers,  dissolve 
in  10  cubic  centimeters  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and 
water,  dilute  to  250  cubic  centimeters  with  hot  water.  Re- 
precipitate  with  ammonia  as  before.  Filter  on  the  same 
washed  filters.  Ignite — finally  to  highest  heat  of  blast  lamp — 
and  weigh  as  oxide  of  iron  and  alumina.  Fuse  with  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  boil  out  with  water,  filter,  and  dissolve  residue  in 
hydrochloric  acid.  Titrate  iron  with  "  bichromate  "  and  ob- 
tain alumina  by  difference  from  total  weight  of  oxides  of  iron 
and  alumina,  calculating  the  contained  aluminium  from  the 
oxide. 

Pure  bauxite  ores  can  be  laid  down  in  Pittsburgh  at  a  cost 
of  not  over  $7.00  per  ton  at  present. 

Diaspore,  the  monohydrate  of  alumina  (A1203H20)  is  a 
hard  crystalline  mineral,  having  a  specific  gravity  of  3.4.  It 
occurs  as  a  very  pure  mineral  for  an  ore  of  aluminium,  but  is 
not  yet  found  in  sufficient  quantities,  nor  is  it  as  easily 
worked  as  the  softer  triple  hydrate. 

The  stalactitic  modification  of  the  triple  hydrate,  the  min- 
eral gibbsite,  which  occurs  in  the  purest  beds  of  bauxite,  has  a 
specific  gravity  of  2.4,  and  is  a  purer  mineral,  freer  from 
oxide  of  iron,  silica,  and  titanic  acid  than  bauxite.  Un- 


244  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

fortunately,  it  has  not  been  found  in  large  masses  together, 
although  much  of  the  purest  grade  of  bauxite  found  in 
Georgia  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  gibbsite. 

Aluminite,  having  a  chemical  formula  of  A^SO^OHgO, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  3.66.  This  mineral  contains  from  20 
to  30  per  cent,  of  alumina  in  a  condition  to  be  cheaply 
purified  by  solution,  filtration  and  roasting.  It  may  become 
a  cheap  source  of  alumina  in  the  future,  as  there  are  large 
beds  of  it  in  several  of  the  western  states,  including  one  in 
Purgatory  Valley,  12  miles  east  of  Trinidad,  Colorado,  and 
one  upon  the  banks  of  the  Gila  River  in  New  Mexico,  near 
Silver  City.  At  present,  however,  it  is  not  used  in  the 
chemical  manufacture  of  alumina,  one  of  the  chief  reasons 
being  the  excessive  freight  charges. 

Method  of  Reduction.  Reduction  is  effected  by  electrolysis. 
The  principle  is  that  alumina  is  decomposed  in  the  presence 
of  a  melted  fluoride  by  the  electric  current  and  metallic 
aluminium  is  liberated.  Processes  for  producing  aluminium 
by  the  aid  of  the  electric  current  were  used  since  the  days  of 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy ;  by  Deville,  described  in  his  celebrated 
work  on  aluminium,  published  in  1855  ;  by  Gaudin  in  1869  ; 
Kagenbusch  in  1872  ;  and  Berthaut  in  1879.  Most  of  these 
investigators  got  as  far  in  their  experiments  in  producing 
aluminium  by  electricity  as  to  obtain  patents  on  the  subject 
either  in  England  or  America.  M.  Adolph  Minet  developed 
a  process  at  the  works  of  the  Bernard  Brothers  at  Creile  (Oise), 
France,  which  has  been  in  operation  in  a  small  way  ever 
since  the  year  1888.  The  process  as  described  at  the  Paris 
Exposition,  is  to  submit  to  the  influence  of  the  electric 
current  a  mixture  of  fluoride  of  aluminium  and  sodium, 
together  with  the  chloride  of  sodium.  According  to  the  de- 


ALUMINIUM.  245 

scriptions  of  M.  Adolph  Minet,  he  uses  a  mixture  of  cryolite 
and  salt  in  the  proportions  of  30  or  40  per  cent,  of  cryolite  to 
60  or  70  per  cent,  of  common  salt ;  the  mass  remaining 
molten  by  the  heat  developed  by  the  resistance  of  the  electric 
current ;  the  bath  being  replenished  by  additions  of  alumina, 
which  it  is  claimed  dissolves  freely  in  the  free  fluorides  con- 
stituting the  bath.  Metallic  aluminium  is  deposited  on  the 
cathode  and  free  fluorine  at  the  anode.  The  claims  are  that 
the  latter  at  once  displaces  the  oxide  of  aluminium  dissolved 
in  the  bath,  reforming  fresh  aluminium  fluoride ;  the  oxygen 
displaced  attacking  the  carbon  anode  and  being  evolved  as 
carbonic  acid.  The  claim  was  also  made  that  the  sodium 
fluoride  undergoes  decomposition  by  the  action  of  the  electric 
current,  yielding  up  its  sodium  by  interaction  with  the 
aluminium  fluoride  present,  thus  causing  the  liberation  of  an 
equivalent  of  aluminium  and  reforming  sodium  fluoride. 

The  process  of  manufacture  of  aluminium  as  conducted  by 
the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  is  the  invention  of 
Charles  M.  Hall,  and  consists  essentially  in  dissolving  alu- 
mina in  a  molten  bath  composed  of  the  fluoride  of  some 
metal  more  electro-positive  than  aluminium ;  passing  an 
electric  current  through  the  molten  mass  and  the  production 
of  aluminium  by  electrolysis  of  the  dissolved  alumina ;  the 
fluorides  of  sodium  and  calcium  with  the  fluoride  of  alumi- 
nium being  the  preferable  salts  used  in  the  molten  bath, 
although  the  fluorides  of  aluminium  and  sodium  have  been 
used  successfully  alone  without  the  use  of  the  fluoride  of  cal- 
cium, in  some  of  their  commercial  work.  The  fluoride  bath 
material,  when  melted,  is  almost  permanent ;  the  only  loss 
being  small  mechanical  lots  of  material  sticking  to  the  pokers 
and  ladles,  and  a  very  small  loss  from  volatilization,  when 


246  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  process  is  working  correctly.  Fresh  fluoride  bath  mater- 
ial is  more  or  less  impure,  containing  oxides  of  silicon  and 
iron,  in  the  form  of  quartz,  sand,  and  spathic  iron,  and  these 
metals  are  alloyed  with  the  first  aluminium  produced  in  the 
new  bath,  as  all  of  the  silicon  and  iron  are  reduced  before 
almost  any  aluminium  is  reduced,  and  the  first  metal  pro- 
duced contains  nearly  all  these  impurities  from  the  molten 
fluoride  salts.  The  process  is  practically  one  of  analytical 
accuracy,  as  an  assay,  in  its  production  of  aluminium  from 
the  ore  added,  as  there  is  practically  no  loss  of  the  alumina 
at  all,  almost  every  particle  of  it  being  electrolyzed  to  alu- 
minium. As  there  are  no  slags  nor  waste  products  which 
can  contain  the  metal,  the  quantity  of  aluminium  produced 
is  almost  exactly  in  accordance  with  the  alumina  added — a 
state  of  affairs  not  existing  with  the  reduction  of  any  of  the 
other  metals  as  now  carried  on,  on  a  commerical  scale.  The 
double  fluorides  of  aluminium  and  sodium  as  used  by  the 
Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  are  found  in  the  native  min- 
eral cryolite,  which  is  mined  at  Evigtut,  near  Arksut,  Green- 
land, and  costs  about  6  cents  per  pound.  The  fluoride  of 
calcium  is  the  more  common  mineral,  fluorspar,  which  is 
found  in  a  reasonably  pure  state,  in  quantity,  in  Illinois,  and 
costs  only  about  $20  per  ton. 

In  the  process  as  carried  on  by  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction 
Company  these  chemicals  are  placed  in  open  carbon-lined  iron 
pots,  which  are  arranged  in  series  with  the  electric  current. 
The  pure  oxide  (alumina)  dissolves  to  the  extent  of  over  30 
per  cent,  in  the  molten  fluoride  salts.  The  electric  current  is 
passed  through  the  molten  mass  by  the  aid  of  carbon  cylinders 
used  as  anodes,  which  extend  down  into  the  molten  metal, 
these  carbon  anodes  being  attached  by  copper  rods  to  the  main 


ALUMINIUM.  247 

portion  of  the  line  conducting  the  electric  current  from  the 
positive  end  of  the  electric  generating  machinery.  The  pot 
itself,  with  its  lining  and  the  metal  deposited  upon  the  bottom, 
becomes  the  negative  electrode  or  cathode,  and  the  pot  is 
connected  by  copper  connections  to  the  line  extending  to  the 
positive  electrode  in  each  pot.  The  electric  current  passing 
through  the  molten  material  causes  the  aluminium  to  be  de- 
posited by  electrolysis  as  a  molten  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  the  freed  oxygen  going  out  as  carbonic  oxide  or  carbonic 
acid  gas  in  connection  with  the  carbon  of  the  anode,  wearing 
it  away  in  proportion  of  a  little  less  than  an  equal  weight  of 
the  anode  to  the  aluminium  produced.  The  wear  upon  the 
walls  of  the  pot  is  very  small,  and  as  the  metal  is  tapped  out 
from  the  pots  each  day  by  heavy  cast-iron  dippers,  replacing 
the  electrolyte  on  the  top  of  each  ladleful  of  metal  with  the 
carbon  rods,  the  operation  in  this  way  is  kept  continuous  for 
many  months  at  a  time. 

The  fact  of  the  alumina  having  become  reduced  to  a  small 
amount  in  the  bath  is  indicated  by  a  rise  in  the  electrical 
resistance  of  the  molten  fluid  to  the  passage  of  the  electric 
current :  and  thus  by  the  aid  of  some  form  of  volt-meter  to 
measure  the  electrical  resistance  of  the  current  in  its  passage 
through  each  pot,  the  time  for  furnishing  a  fresh  supply  of 
alumina  to  the  bath  is  properly  told.  The  heat  is  retained  in 
the  molten  bath  of  fluoride  salts  by  the  aid  of  a  raft  of  finely 
divided  carbon,  which  is  kept  floating  upon  its  top,  on  the 
surface  of  which  a  fresh  supply  of  alumina  is  usually  kept  for 
each  further  addition.  The  temperature  of  the  molten  bath 
is  kept  constant  by  the  passage  of  the  electric  current  through 
it,  the  resistance  of  the  bath  generating  sufficient  heat  for  this 
purpose.  Currents  of  very  large  quantities  in  amperes  are 


248  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

used  and  of  low  voltage ;  only  sufficient  pressure  being  re- 
quired to  overcome  the  electrical  resistance  of  the  number  of 
pots  arranged  in  each  series,  each  pot  requiring  from  six  to 
eight  volts  with  the  pots  now  in  use. 

At  the  end  of  1892  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  had 
an  output  of  between  500  and  600  pounds  of  aluminium  per 
day,  but  was  then  making  arrangements  to  increase  the  out- 
put considerably. 

Alloys  of  aluminium.  Aluminium  and  copper  form  two 
series  of  valuable  alloys — aluminium  bronze  containing  from 
5  to  11 J  of  aluminium ;  and  copper  hardened  aluminium 
containing  from  2  to  15  per  cent,  of  copper. 

A  small  percentage  of  aluminium  added  to  Babbitt  metal 
gives  very  superior  results  over  ordinary  Babbitt  as  a  bearing 
metal. 

Aluminium  is  used  regularly  by  many  of  the  largest  steel 
companies  in  the  country.  It  is  added  to  the  steel  in  propor- 
tions of  one-half  pound  to  several  pounds  of  aluminium  to 
the  ton  of  steel,  the  purpose  of  the  addition  being  largely  to 
prevent  the  retention  of  the  occluded  gases  in  the  steel,  and 
give  thereby  the  production  of  solid  ingots. 

According  to  Alfred  E.  Hunt*,  the  product  of  aluminium 
in  the  United  States  has  been  as  follows : 


Pounds. 

Pounds. 

1883 

63 

1888 

19,000 

1884 

150 

1889 

47,468 

1885 

263 

1890 

61,281 

1886 

3,000 

1891 

150,000 

1887 

18,000 

1892 

259,885 

Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States,  1892. 


ALUMINIUM.  249 

These  figures  include  the  production  of  aluminium  in  al- 
loys, in  which  form  the  largest  share — probably  at  least  21,000 
pounds — of  the  metal  in  1885,  1886,  and  1887  was  turned  out. 

The  world's  product  of  alumnium  up  to  the  beginning  of 
the  year  1893  is  estimated  as  follows : 

Great  Britain 222,000  pounds. 

France 226,000        " 

Switzerland  and  Germany 1,243,120        " 


Total  European  product 1,691,120  pounds. 

United  States .   .       559,130        " 


Total  for  the  world 2,250,250  pounds. 

Or  about  1,125  short  tons  of  pure  aluminium  metal,  of 
which  probably  just  about  the  odd  125  tons  was  made  in  the 
form  of  aluminium  bronze  or  ferro-aluminium  alloys,  so  that 
the  probable  production  of  aluminium  in  the  world  has  been 
about  1,000  tons  up  to  the  above  mentioned  date. 

In  1893,  339,629  pounds  of  aluminium  were  made  in  the 
United  States,  chiefly  by  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company. 
It  was  valued  at  $266,963  in  the  producer's  hands. 

Aluminium  is  now  sold  in  the  markets  in  the  form  of  in- 
gots, plates,  sheets,  bars,  shapes,  wire  and  castings.  Practi- 
cally all  the  pure  aluminium  which  has  been  made  in  the 
United  States  has  been  made  in  accordance  with  the  electro- 
lytic process  covered  by  Hall's  patents.  The  sodium  process 
of  manufacture  has  never  been  worked  on  any  large  scale  in 
this  country. 


250  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

CORUNDUM  AND  EMERY. 

CORUNDUM  when  pure  is  simply  alumina,  or  sesquioxide  of 
aluminium,  and  emery  in  its  general  acceptance  is  the  same 
with  various  degrees  of  associated  iron  oxide  (ferric  or  ferrous 
oxide).  Corundum  in  its  purest  crystalline  state  is  the  sap- 
phire when  blue,  and  ruby  when  red.  But  the  hardness 
(pure)  varies  from  next  to  the  diamond  9,  to  (impure)  as  low 
as  5,  the  latter  being  emery  much  mixed  with  magnetite  and 
silica.  Its  gravity  if  pure  is  about  4.  Lustre  vitreous,  some- 
times pearly  on  the  basal  planes,  and  frequently,  as  in  North 
Carolina  specimens,  showing  an  opalescent  star  of  six  rays  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis,  especially  if  dipped  in  water. 

Under  the  blowpipe  it  remains  unaltered,  but  slowly  dis- 
solves in  borax  and  salt  of  phosphorus  to  a  clear  glass  color- 
less, if  free  from  iron.  The  finely  pulverized  mineral,  after 
long  heating  with  a  cobalt  solution,  gives  a  beautiful  blue 
color.  It  is  converted  into  a  soluble  compound  if  heated  with 
bisulphate  of  potash,  as  in  case  of  chrome  iron  ore  previously 
described. 

This  mineral  is  associated  with  crystalline  rock,  as  granular 
limestone,  or  dolomite,  gneiss,  granite,  mica,  slate,  chlorite 
slate. 

The  largest  occurrence  of  emery  at  present  known  is  at 
Chester,  Mass.,  but  this  emery  is  not  rated  as  equal  to  the 
foreign,  nor  at  all  equal  in  abrasive  power  to  corundum,  es- 
pecially to  that  now  worked  in  North  Corolina  at  Corundum 
Hill,  Macon  County,  and  in  Georgia,  Lowndes  County,  and 
in  other  States.  In  searching  for  corundum,  chlorite  is  con- 
sidered a  good  sign.  "  As  the  rocks  of  the  southern  corun- 
dum field  are  often  decomposed  to  a  depth  of  from  30  to  40 


CORUNDUM    AND    EMERY.  251 

feet,  prospecting  is  sometimes  difficult ;  but  a  careful  pre- 
climinary  examination  of  the  surface  will  often  save  much 
useless  digging."  Hence  it  is  advised  to  look  for  corundum 
neither  in  the  gneiss  nor  in  the  chrysolite  (?),  but  along  the 
contacts  of  the  two  rocks,  and  particularly  when  the  two 
rocks  are  most  altered  ;  if  a  contact  is  found,  it  should  be 
carefully  followed  and  the  adjacent  rocks  closely  examined. 
(T.  M.  Chartard.)  This  chrysolite  is  a  term  probably  for 
some  eruptive  rock  or  hypersthene  of  grayish-green  color,  but 
not  the  true  chrysolite,  mineralogically. 

Almost  all  the  corundum  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
emery  of  commerce  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of  the  well- 
known  corundum  and  emery  wheels.  The  preparation  of 
corundum  and  emery  has  for  its  object  the  granulation  of  the 
material  into  a  series  of  "  numbers"  or  grades  of  fineness, 
ranging  from  the  finest  "  flour"  up  to  particles  of  compara- 
tively large  size. 

The  method  recommended  to  test  the  abrasive  power  of  a 
corundum  sample,  upon  which  its  value  depends,  is  by  tak- 
ing a  piece  of  plate  glass  previously  weighed,  placing  on  it  a 
weighed  portion  of  the  sample  to  be  tested,  rubbing  the  ma- 
terial on  the  glass  and  continuing  the  operation  until  the 
glass  ceases  to  lose  in  weight,  the  total  loss  in  weight  of  the 
glass  giving  the  abrasive  power  of  the  sample.  (Chartard.) 

The  proper  way  of  conducting  this  test  is  by  using  two 
pieces  of  glass,  one  to  rub  with  and  the  other  to  be  weighed, 
or  both  may  be  weighed,  and  the  time  taken  in  constant  work 
is  also  an  element  in  making  up  a  test. 

Corundum  beds  may  be  considered  valuable  and  their  value 
will  increase. 

The  following  table  shows  the  annual  product  of  corundum 
and  emery  in  the  United  States  since  1881 : 


252 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Short  tons. 

Short  tons. 

1881  .   . 

500 

$80,000 

1888  .   . 

589 

$91,620 

1882  .   . 

500 

80,000 

1889  .   . 

2,245 

105,567 

1883  .    . 

550 

100,000 

1890  .    . 

1,970 

89,395 

1884  .    .            600 

108,000 

1891  ..  . 

2,247 

90,230 

1885  .   . 

600 

108,000 

1892  .    . 

1,771 

181,300 

1886  . 

645 

116,190 

1893  .   . 

1,713 

142,325 

1887  .   . 

600 

108,000 

The  imports  for  1893  were :  Emery  in  grains,  516,953 
pounds,  valued  at  $20,073  ;  emery  in  ore  or  rock,  5,066  tons, 
valued  at  $103,875  ;  other  manufactures  (emery  wheels  or 
files,  etc.),  valued  at  $3,819  ;  total  value  of  imports,  $127,767. 


PUMICE  STONE. 

The  only  deposit  of  this  material  utilized  in  the  United 
States,  is  near  Lake  Merced,  a  few  miles  from  San  Francisco, 
California,  but  the  amount  mined  is  very  small,  not  exceed- 
ing seventy  tons  yearly,  but  of  a  quality  equal  to  the  im- 
ported article. 

Pumice  stone,  as  imported  from  the  Lipari  Islands,  is  com- 
posed of  from  70  to  77  per  cent,  silica,  and  16  to  17.5  of 
alumina  with  a  little  (.5  to  1.75)  ferric  oxide  and  some  lime 
and  potassa.  In  gravity  it  is  lighter  than  water  and  gene- 
rally of  a  grayish  color,  occasionally  brownish-gray.  Lipari, 
a  volcanic  island,  twenty-six  miles  north  of  Sicily,  is  at  pres- 


INFUSORIAL    EARTH.  253 

ent  the  great  magazine  of  pumice  stone.  The  value  of  the 
importation  of  this  substance  in  1883  was  $50,634,  decreasing 
in  1887  to  $26,291. 

Rotten  stone,  sometimes  known  as  "  tripoli,"  is  a  decom- 
posed silicious  limestone,  not  yet  discovered  in  any  sufficient 
quantities  for  mining  in  the  United  States,  but  is  imported 
from  Great  Britain,  $2235  worth  being  entered  for  con- 
sumption in  1886,  and  $5556  in  1887.  The  knowledge  of 
these  two  bodies  must  be  gained  by  comparison  of  samples 
known  with  the  mineral  samples  obtained. 


INFUSORIAL  EARTH. 

The  composition  of  this  material  is  chiefly  of  what  may 
be  called  the  minute  silicious  skeletons  of  fossil  animalcules 
(infusoria).  The  analysis  of  infusorial  earth  near  Richmond, 
Virginia,  yielded  Mr.  J.  M.  Cabell  75.86  of  silica,  9.88  alu- 
mina, some  ferric  oxide  and  smaller  quantities  of  lime,  mag- 
nesia, potash,  soda,  and  nitrogenous  matter.  The  detection 
of  this  earth  must  be  made  by  use  of  the  microscope,  which 
readily  reveals  the  silicious  fossils. 

Beds  of  this  earth  have  been  found  in  many  places  in 
•California  and  Nevada,  some  of  which  have  been  proved  to 
be  of  great  extent. 

This  earth  has  been  used  in  the  manufacture  of  polishing 
powders,  in  so-called  "  sand  soaps  "  and  other  detersive  soaps, 
.and  as  an  absorbent  of  nitro-glycerine  for  explosives,  although 
for  the  latter  purpose  it  has  been  imported  from  Germany. 
A  deposit  known  as  " tripoli"  is  found  on  the  Patuxent 
River,  near  Dunkirk,  Calvert  County,  Maryland.  Samples 


254 


MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 


show  about  84  per  cent,  silica,  one  specimen  running  over 
90  per  cent,  with  about  8  per  cent.  lime.  Work  has  begun 
quite  extensively  upon  this  deposit. 

A  deposit  of  silicious  earth  has  recently  been  developed  in 
Newton  County,  Missouri.  To  this  product  the  term  "  tri- 
poli "  has  also  been  applied,  though  it  is  in  reality  a  distinct 
mineral,  being  a  silicious  lime-stone  from  which  the  carbon- 
ate of  lime  has  been  leached  out,  leaving  the  silica  in  a  very 
porous  state.  The  product  is  used  for  water  niters  in  the 
form  of  discs,  cylinders,  tubes,  etc.,  for  ink  blotters,  either  in 
the  shape  of  rollers  or  in  rectangular  blocks  about  5J  inches 
long,  2J  inches  wide,  and  three-fourths  inch  thick.  It  is 
very  porous,  absorbs  fluids  readily,  and  makes  a  very  con- 
venient as  well  as  enduring  desk  blotter.  When  the  surface 
becomes  clogged  by  drying  it  is  easily  cleaned  by  rubbing 
gently  over  it  a  piece  of  ordinary  sandpaper.  The  material  is 
also  ground  into  a  fine  powder  for  polishing  metal  surfaces 
and  for  manufacturing  various  cleansing  preparations. 

The  following  table  shows  the  annual  production  of  infu- 
sorial earth  in  the  United  States,  since  1880  : 


Years. 

Short  tons. 

Value. 

Years. 

Short  tons. 

Value. 

1880.   . 

1,833 

$45,660 

1887  .   . 

3,000 

115,000 

1881  .   . 

1,000 

10,000 

1888  .   . 

1,500 

7,500 

1882  .   . 

1,000 

8,000 

1889  .   . 

3,466 

23,372 

1883.   . 

1,000 

5,000 

1890  .   . 

2,532 

50,240 

1884.   . 

1,000 

5,000 

1891       . 



21,988 

1885  .   . 

1,000 

5,000 

1892  .   . 



43,655 

1886  .   . 

1,200 

6,000 

1893  .   . 



22,582 

r 

BUHR-STONES.  255 

GRINDSTONES. 

This  is  a  fine-grained  sandstone  differing  greatly  in  texture 
and  hardness  in  different  localities.  The  principal  source  of 
grindstones  in  the  United  States  is  the  geological  formation 
known  as  the  Berea  Grit,  which  underlies  large  areas  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  Ohio.  Near  Grindstone  City,  Michigan, 
there  is  found  a  fine-grained  argillaceous  stone,  of  a  uniform 
blue  color,  which  is  in  general  use  for  finishing  work,  especi- 
ally where  a  very  fine  edge  is  required.  Near  Marquette,  on 
the  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  the  writer  discovered  a  large 
quantity  of  an  exceedingly  fine-grained  silicious  sandstone  of 
close  texture,  and  had  some  of  it  worked  up  in  Ohio,  where  it 
was  made  into  small  stones  of  excellent  cutting  power,  and  it 
is  probable  that  as  soon  as  arrangements  can  be  made  the 
material  will  be  more  extensively  tried.  In  1884  the  total 
imports,  finished  and  rough,  were  7056  tons,  valued  at  $86,286. 
The  home  production  in  1893  was  valued  at  $338,787,  while 
the  imports  were  $59,569. 


BUHR-STONES. 

The  leading  localities  for  this  stone  in  the  United  States  are 
Ulster  Co.,  New  York,  where  the  stone  known  as  Esopus  stone 
is  a  quartzite  of  variable  texture  and  hardness ;  Lancaster  Co., 
Pennsylvania,  here  called  the  Cocalico,  a  conglomerate  stone 
found  as  bowlders  scattered  over  the  surface ;  Peninsula,  Sum- 
mit Co.,  Ohio,  where  a  white  variety  of  the  Berea  Grit  is 
worked,  mainly  for  the  purpose  of  grinding  oatmeal  and  bar- 
ley. Many  other  places  have  reported  discoveries  of  buhr- 


256  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

stones  of  various  qualities,  but  the  American  stones  are  not 
used  at  all  for  grinding  wheat,  but  only  for  the  coarser  cereals, 
and  for  grinding  paints,  cement,  chemicals,  fertilizers,  char- 
coal, etc.  The  imported  stones,  being  finer  in  grain  and  much 
harder,  are  used  for  grinding  wheat  and  for  all  the  better  class 
of  work.  The  use  of  rollers,  as  a  substitute  for  buhr-stone,  is 
gaining  ground  with  great  rapidity,  and  this  may  account  for 
the  fact  that,  while  in  1882  the  value  of  buhr-stones,  rough 
and  made  into  millstones,  imported  was  $104,034,  in  1883  it 
fell  to  $73,685,  and  in  1893  to  $30,261.  The  total  product 
of  the  United  States  in  1893  was  valued  at  $16,639.  The 
true  buhr-stone  is  a  cellular  flinty  rock  having  the  nature,  in 
part,  of  coarse  chalcedony.  (Dana.) 


THE  DIAMOND. 

Diamonds  have  been  found  in  the  following  places  in  tha 
United  States  :  Probably  the  largest  was  found  at  Manchester, 
Virginia,  in  some  earth  dug  up  by  a  laboring  man,  the  first 
public  record  of  which  occurs  in  the  New  York  Evening  Post 
of  April  28,  1855.  The  original  weight  vas  23}  carats,  and 
after  cutting  it  weighed  11  is  carats  (carat  of  four  grains).  As 
it  is  an  "  off  color  "  and  not  perfect,  its  present  value  is  con- 
sidered only  $300  to  $400. 

The  first  diamond  found  in  North  Carolina  was  at  the  ford 
of  Brindletown  Creek,  in  Burke  County,  value  $100.  Another 
was  found  in  the  same  neighborhood  and  a  third  at  Twitty's 
mine,  Rutherford  County,  of  yellowish  color.  A  fourth  was 
found  near  Cottage  Home,  Lincoln  County,  in  1852,  and  of 
greenish  color.  Another  was  found  at  Todd's  branch,  Meek- 


THE    DIAMOND.  257 

lenburg  County,  of  a  good  white  color.  Dr.  Andrews  reports 
the  finding  of  a  black  diamond,  of  the  "  size  of  a  chincapin," 
by  three  persons,  who  crushed  it,  believing  a  diamond  could 
not  be  broken.  He  found  that  the  fragments  scratch  corun- 
dum very  readily. 

The  following  places  may  be  mentioned  in  addition  : 

Two  diamonds  found  at  Portis  mine,  Franklin  County, 
N.C. 

One  at  head-waters  of  Muddy  Creek,  McDowell  County, 
N.  C. 

Several  from  one-half  carat  to  over  2  carats,  J.  C.  Mill's 
mine  in  Burke  County ;  but  some  of  these  were  quartz,  and 
one  Mr.  Kunz  found  to  be  zircon. 

"  The  diamonds  found  in  North  Carolina  are  usually  found 
associated  with  gold,  monazite,  xenotime,  zircon,  octahedrite, 
and  other  minerals."  (Kunz.)  Dr.  Genth  says  this  debris  is 
the  result  of  the  old  gneissoid  rocks,  such  as  mica  schists  and 
gneiss,  in  which  graphite  is  always  found.  Monazite  has  a 
hardness  of  5  to  5.5  and  a  gravity  of  about  5,  with  a  resinous 
lustre,  with  a  brownish  or  yellowish-brown  color,  and  sub- 
translucent  to  nearly  transparent  appearance.  The  composi- 
tion is  phosphoric  acid,  thorium,  sometimes  tin,  cerium  and 
lanthanum.  The  mineral  is  very  rare  ;  under  the  blowpipe  it 
is  infusible,  but  soon  turns  gray,  and  with  a  little  sulphuric 
acid  it  tinges  the  flame  bluish-green ;  with  borax  it  gives  a 
bead  yellow  while  hot  and  colorless  on  cooling,  and  a  satu- 
rated bead  becomes  enamel  white  on  flaming,  soluble  in  muri- 
atic acid  with  difficulty.  Xenotime  has  the  same  general  ap- 
pearance, except  that  it  is  opaque,  hardness  4  to  5,  gravity 
4.5 ;  its  composition  is  phosphoric  acid  and  yttria,  and  acts 
under  the  blowpipe  as  monazite,  but  is  insoluble  in  acids ;  the 
17 


258  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

crystals  are  frequently  flattened,  while  those  of  monazite  are 
rather  elongated.  Octahedrite  has  a  hardness  of  monazite  and 
a  gravity  4,  a  metallic-adamantine  lustre,  color  various  shades 
of  brown,  passing  into  indigo  blue  and  black ;  greenish-yellow 
by  transmitted  light,  uncolored  streak,  and  is  in  composition 
pure  titanic  acid.  Before  the  blowpipe  infusible,  but  with  salt 
of  phosphorus  gives  a  colorless  bead  which  in  the  I.  F.  as- 
sumes a  violet  color  on  cooling.  Where  any  iron  is  present 
the  color  appears  only  upon  charcoal  when  treated  with  metal- 
lic tin.  If  made  soluble,  by  fusion  with  an  alkali  or  alkaline 
carbonate,  in  excess  of  muriatic  or  nitric  acid,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  tin-foil,  it  gives  a  beautiful  violet  color  when  concen- 
trated, just  as  in  the  case  of  the  mineral  rutile,  which  has  the 
same  composition.  See  Titanium. 

Mr.  C.  Leventhorpe  mentions  the  finding  at  his  placer 
mine,  in  Rutherford  County,  North  Carolina,  of  a  diamond  of 
bad  color,  which  was  placed  in  the  Amherst  College  collec- 
tion. 

One  was  found  in  a  South  Carolina  placer  by  Mr.  Twitty, 
and  one,  owned  by  the  latter  gentleman,  from  White  County, 
Georgia.  Also  in  Georgia  at  the  Horshow  placer  gold  mine, 
Racooche  Valley,  White  County,  Georgia,  several  have  been 
found  here. 

Also  in  California  from  Forrest  Hill,  El  Dorado  County, 
found  at  a  great  depth  in  the  auriferous  gravel.  Another  at 
French  Carrol,  Nevada  County.  Four  have  been  found  at 
Fiddletown,  Amador  County,  in  the  gray  cemented  gravel 
underlying  a  stratum  of  so-called  lava,  or  compact  ashes. 
Prof.  Whitney  states  that  diamonds  have  been  found  in  fif- 
teen to  twenty  localities  in  Calfornia,  the  largest  of  7J  carats, 
found  at  French  corral.  Some  13  or  14  have  been  reported 


THE    DIAMOND.  259 

from  Placerville,  California.  At  Cherokee  flat,  some  fifty  or 
sixty  diamonds  have  been  found,  some  rose-colored  and 
yellow,  and  some  white,  all  associated  with  lava,  ashes,  or 
other  volcanic  matter,  zircon,  platinum,  iridium,  magnetite, 
etc. 

A  few  have  been  found  in  the  placer  diggings  in  Idaho. 
One  was  said  to  have  been  found  at  Eagle,  Waukesha  County, 
Wisconsin,  having  been  thrown  out  from  a  depth  of  60  feet 
while  excavating  a  well.  Two  others  have  been  reported  as 
found  here.  One  was  found  at  Nelson  Hill,  near  Blackfoot, 
Deer  Lodge  County,  Montana,  and  another  near  Philadel- 
phus,  Arizona. 

Diamonds  have  a  gravity  of  about  3.5.  When  found  they 
are  generally  of  an  octahedral  shape,  and  without  any  very 
apparent  lustre,  hence  they  must  be  cut  before  the  character- 
istic brilliancy  exhibits  itself.  They  will  bear  even  a  red 
heat  without  losing  any  hardness,  or  even  suffering  injury  in 
any  way.  While  resisting  pressure  to  a  remarkable  extent, 
they  may,  however,  be  fractured,  and  frequently  diamonds 
have  been  splintered,  or  broken,  under  the  stamp  of  the  gold 
quartz  stamp  at  the  mills.  Perhaps  one  of  the  best  tests  of 
a  diamond  is  its  ability  to  scratch  or  wear  the  surface  of  a 
piece  of  corundum.  The  appearance  of  the  diamond  in  the 
rough  state  is  so  peculiar  that  nothing,  but  large  experience 
will  enable  the  discoverer  of  such  a  diamond  to  determine  its 
nature.  But  as  corundum  is  next  in  hardness  to  the  dia- 
mond, the  latter  in  a  rough  state  will  show  its  nature  very 
frequently  by  its  feeling  of  resistance  as  well  as  by  its  effect 
upon  the  corundum  surface.  But  this  feeling  of  resistance  is 
to  a  great  extent  only  acquired  by  experience,  and  hence 
only  the  abrasive,  or  scratching  power  of  the  true  diamond 


260  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

upon  a  smooth  piece  of  corundum  is  a  sure  test.  The  octahe- 
dral form  of  the  diamond,  as  sometimes  found,  is  not  always 
to  be  expected  by  the  explorer,  since  it  frequently  occurs  in 
other  forms,  and  sometimes  massive  in  small  quantities,  and 
has  been  found  in  various  shades  of  color,  and  even  black. 
But  we  may  be  almost  certain  that  any  perfectly  crystalline 
transparent  forms  are  not  those  of  the  true  stone,  especially  if 
projecting  from,  or  attached  to,  any  rock.  Diamonds  are 
found  always  of  a  dingy  white  surface  and  sometimes  like 
ground  or  worn  glass  pebbles,  unless  they  have  suffered  fract- 
ure. Their  ability  to  scratch  glass  is  no  proof  of  their  distinct- 
ive value  as  diamonds,  and  other  transparent  stones  found 
with  the  diamonds  may  do  the  same,  especially  the  zircon 
and  quartz  pebbles.  . 

In  the  diamond  fields  of  Africa  it  is  said  that  the  richest 
stones  are  found  in  a  bed  of  clay  about  200  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  as  the  claims  are  about  300  yards  square,  the 
work  is  very  expensive,  for  miners  attempt  to  excavate  and 
examine  the  entire  claim,  since  fine  diamonds  may  be  found 
in  any  part.  This  is  at  Kimberly,  Griqua  land. 

Probably  the  largest  diamond  in  the  world,  recently  found 
in  the  African  diamond  fields  (in  1893),weights  over  914  carats. 
It  is  three  inches  long  by  about  two  and  a  half  thick  and  is 
of  an  extended  pyramidal  form.  It  is  not  quite  perfect,  hav- 
ing a  dark  spot  in  its  midst. 


PART  II. 


MINING  WOKK  AND  ARCHITECTURE, 


INCLUDING 


VARIOUS  SUGGESTIONS,  WITH  DESCRIPTIONS  OF  ASSOCIATED 
APPARATUS  AND  MACHINERY. 


WITH    AN    APPENDIX 


BORING  ARTESIAN,  PETROLEUM,  GAS,  AND  OTHER  DEEP  WELLS, 


MINING  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MACHINERY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

IN  this  part  we  have  followed,  to  a  large  extent,  the 
plans  and  suggestions  of  some  of  the  best  English,  French, 
and  German  authorities  and  works,  but  especially  the  work 
of  Neiderest,  which,  in  translating,  we  have  accommodated 
to  methods  adopted  successfully  in  our  own  mines.  In  some 
parts  of  New  York  and  in  mines  on  Lake  Superior,  as  well  as 
in  the  South  and  in  the  Colorado  and  Montana  gold  mines, 
a  system  of  mining  was  formerly  pursued,  with  a  view  to 
immediate  results,  which  has  been  the  occasion  of  great  loss 
of  products  as  well  as  of  time,  and  has  necessitated  great 
labor,  in  some  instances,  to  put  the  workings  into  shape  for 
future  operations.  The  author  had  photographs  and  draw- 
ings taken  as  illustrations  of  these  errorrs ;  it  was  thought, 
however,  best  not  to  use  them,  but  to  present  only  the  best 
methods,  as  the  reasons  for  adopting  them  would  cover  all 
instances  of  errors  and  of  inferior  plans  and  apparatus,  and  so 
afford  more  space  for  that  which  might  prove  more  valuable. 

The  cuts  will  fully  explain  all  the  suggestions  and  methods 
presented,  where  the  text  has  not  already  given  descriptions. 

SOME  EXPLANATIONS  OF  TERMS. 

Various  names  are  given  to  the  same  parts  of  mines,  as 
well  as  of  pieces  of  construction,  in  different  parts  of  the 

(263) 


264  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

country.  These  variations  are  readily  learned  at  the  place, 
and  do  not  cause  much  confiision  to  the  well-informed.  Cer- 
tain terms,  however,  are  almost  universal,  and  a  few  of  these 
should  be  understood  before  we  proceed. 

Neiderest  and  other  German  authors  give  the  German 
names  we  have  stated,  which  in  some  cases  are  better  than 
the  usual  English  names. 

Fig.  7.  A  gallery,  or  gangway,  is  a  horizontal,  or  slightly 
ascending  subterranean  entrance  into  a  hill  or  mountain. 

Its  beginning,  S,  (Fig.  7)  is  called  the  opening  or  mouth, 
and  is  usually  understood  as  the  opening  to  daylight  (miind- 
loch  or  miindung).  The  upper  part  is  called  the  roof,  some- 
times the  range  (firste  or  forste) ;  the  lower  part  the  floor, 
or  bottom  (sohle) ;  both  right  and  left  sides  are  called  the 
side-walls  (ulme),  and  the  end  of  the  gallery  in  the  mountain, 
t,  is  the  termination  or  end  of  the  mine  (ort,  or  vorort). 

Every  gallery  nook  which  does  not  open  out  directly  into 
day,  A,  A,  is  called  by  the  German  miner  a  strecke,  and  when 
transportation  is  the  object  of  such  a  gallery  it  is  called  a  run, 
or  course,  or  way  (lauf ).  It  is  the  Austrian  sohlenstrecke,  or 
in  the  Cumberland  region  of  England  the  headway.  Some- 
times it  is  called  the  heading  gangway,  as  in  the  Eastern  Penn- 
sylvania coal  regions. 

If  this  latter  gangway,  H  or  F,  driven  in  a  formation  com- 
posed of  layers,  runs  at  right  angles  with  the  strike  of  the 
vein,  that  is,  runs  parallel  with  the  dip,  or  inclination,  it  is 
called  an  inclined  drift,  or  heading  (schwebende  strecke) ;  some- 
times in  England  an  "upbrow,"  or  "drift  on  the  dip"  and  an 
"  inclined  drift,"  or  heading.  If  it  follows  the  strike  of  the 
strata,  that  is,  runs  parallel  with  the  strike,  it  is  called  a 
" strike  gallery,"  or  "way  run  on  the  gallery,"  and  it  is  called  a 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. 


FIG.  12. 


To  face  page  264. 


PRELIMINARY    WORK    AND    CONSIDERATIONS.  265 

diagnonal  strike  when  made  upon  a  line  between  the  two 
directions  above  described. 

If  from  a  gallery,  or  gangway,  S  T,  a  branch,  A  A,  sets  off 
sidewise,  it  is  called  a  level  (fliigelort),  or  when  it  passes  along 
the  strike  of  the  deposit  the  Germans  call  it  an  "  auslangen" 
or  side  level  or  side  way.  If  the  gallery,  or  "  strecke,"  runs 
crosswise  into  the  mountain  or  bed,  it  is  called  a  "  crosscut," 
and  may  be  either  an  "  overhanging"  cut,  Ht  or  "  underlying" 
cut,  L,  according  to  the  position  of  the  rock  as  a  hanging  or 
lying  rock,  i.  e.,  hanging  or  foot  rock.  When  a  gallery  crosses 
another  as  at  K,  or  crosses  the  side  level  (or  auslangen),  only 
the  term  "  crossing"  is  used  to  express  this  fact.  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Other  terms  which  are  used  in  this  work  are  generally  ex- 
plained in  the  text  or  the  figures. 

PRELIMINARY  WORK  AND  CONSIDERATIONS. 

Trial  shafts  or  excavations  are  in  some  cases  necessary  be- 
fore the  main  work  of  mining  proper  begins.  In  the  brown 
hematite  ores  these  trial  shafts  are  generally  made  where  the 
country  is  higher  on  one  side,  and  the  general  appearance  of 
the  immediate  site  of  the  shaft  is  that  of  a  shelf  or  of  a  basin. 
In  many  places  these  hematites  seem  to  have  originated  from 
the  washing  down  of  red  hematites,  and  of  magnetic  ores  from 
higher  levels,  and  the  long-continued  settling  of  the  hydrated 
ore  upon  some  knee,  or  on  some  basin.  In  such  cases,  borings 
by  proper  machinery  may  take  the  place  of  regular  excava- 
tions, as  in  a  shaft. 

When,  however,  the  mineral  sought  for  is  known  to  exist  in 
sufficient  quantities  and  determination  is  settled  to  begin  ex- 
cavation, the  first  important  examination  is  to  be  made  of  the 
immediate  neighborhood  to  learn  the  general  level  and  the 


266  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

nearest  distance  to  some  run  or  rivulet,  and  such  other  de- 
scents as  shall  determine  the  question  of  drainage  if  it  should 
so  happen  that  the  mine  should  ever  be  troubled  with  water. 

A  study  of  the  nature  of  the  soil  should  be  instituted,  with 
a  view  to  the  choice  of  the  material  and  the  quantity  to  be 
used  in  protecting  the  excavations,  and  a  wise  provision  made 
beforehand  for  the  timber  or  masonry  which  may  be  called 
for  in  course  of  work. 

One  of  the  most  important  elements  of  successful  mining  is 
accessibility  to  market.  This  includes  accessibility  to  those 
places,  furnaces  or  mills,  to  which  in  the  nature  of  the  product 
the  ore  or  rock  should  be  transported  before  ready  for  the 
market.  Such  methods  by  river,  or  rail  or  road,  should  be 
diligently  studied  before  any  true  mining  work  is  begun. 
There  is  no  one  point  in  which  economy  may  be  studied 
with  better  advantage  than  in  the  cost  of  transportation, 
both  within  the  range  of  the  works  and  beyond.  Unnecessary 
grades,  bad  clayey  or  rough  roads,  cost  in  the  long  run  heav- 
ily by  delay,  breakage,  and  wear,  and  exhausted  power  and 
small  amount  of  carriage,  all  necessitated  by  the  condition  of 
the  way  over  which  products  are  carried. 

When  the  work  of  excavating  or  mining  proper  is  to  be 
begun,  a  very  important  consideration  to  be  taken  into  ac- 
count is  that  relating  to  drainage.  In  some  cases  mining  may 
be  prosecuted  in  a  region  where  little  water  is  found.  In 
other  cases  no  exit  by  gravitation  may  be  had,  so  that  by  any 
grade  water  may  flow  out  of  the  mine ;  and  then  the  only 
resort  is  a  pit,  in  the  proper  place,  to  receive  the  drainage, 
from  which  pit  the  water  must  be  lifted  to  the  surface  by  some 
power  to  be  hereafter  stated.  But  in  all  cases  the  system  of 
inclination  called  the  grade  must  be  definite  and  thoroughly 


PRELIMINARY    WORK    AND    CONSIDERATIONS.  267 

provided  for  at  the  beginning,  and  all  works  constructed  and 
excavations  made  with  a  view  to  this  descent,  which  will  be 
more  or  less  modified  according  to  circumstances. 

This  grade  or  descent  of  the  floor  is  modified  somewhat  by 
the  nature  of  the  rock  or  earth  forming  the  floor,  or  by  its 
smoothness  and  the  amount  of  water  to  be  drained.  As  we 
shall  see  hereafter,  the  drain  or  sluice  through  which  the  mine- 
water  runs  may  be  constructed  along  the  middle  of  the  floor, 
or  on  either  side,  and  should  always  be  sufficiently  wide  and 
deep  to  prevent  overflowing  the  floor.  The  amount  of  grade 
or  descent  will  be  from  one-eighth  of  an  inch  to  one-half  of  an 
inch  per  yard  of  length — the  former,  when  the  water  is  not 
great  in  quantity,  and  the  channel  smooth.  Generally,  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  yard  is  descent  enough.  The  main 
gallery  is  usually  constructed  along  the  strike  of  the  mineral 
to  be  mined.  The  location  of  the  gallery,  or  limiting  of  the 
side  walls,  will  depend  much  upon  the  strength,  the  soundness 
and  the  size  of  the  mineral  vein,  lode  or  seam  to  be  worked. 
So  also  will  the  number  and  position  of  the  galleries  be  deter- 
mined by  the  size  and  location  of  the  vein  or  seam.  It  may 
be  necessary  to  increase  the  number  of  galleries,  and  they  will 
then  be  distinguished  by  numbering  them  as  first,  second,  etc., 
gallery  or  "  lift  " — upper,  middle,  or  lower  gallery  ;  according 
to  number  and  position. 

Opening  a  gallery  from  the  side  of  a  hill,  all  other  things 
being  equal,  is  preferable,  as  may  readily  be  seen  by  Fig.  8. 

Here  it  becomes  plain,  that  there  would  be  an  advantage 
gained  for  drainage  and  transportation  by  "  driving"  a  gallery 
into  the  hill-side  toward  the  vein,  which  is  represented  as 
slightly  inclining  or  pitching  downward  from  right  to  left, 
A.,  B. 


268  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

In  opening  upon  a  lode  or  vein  which  pitches  as  above 
stated,  it  is  always  best  to  begin  the  galleries,  in  this  case 
called  drifts,  near  the  top  of  the  hill,  and  work  toward  the  lode 
or  vein.  The  second  gallery  or  drift,  below,  will  be  under  the 
first,  at  a  distance  determined  by  the  softness  of  the  soil,  and 
the  amount  of  vein  (on  the  slope)  which  can  be  economically 
worked.  For  there  must  be  considerable  expense  incurred  in 
running  these  drifts,  as  they  are  to  be  made  wide  and  high, 
and  thoroughly  prepared  for  conveying  the  material  from  the 
mines  and  for  drainage.  If  the  mineral  vein  can  be  worked 
upward  from  any  one  drift  floor,  the  distance  from  the  floor 
of  one  drift  gallery  to  that  one  over  it  may  be  determined  in 
part  by  the  economic  amount  of  labor  capable  of  being  done 
upward.  As  this  is  strictly  a  matter  of  economy,  it  must  be 
studied  upon  the  basis  of  what  may  be  said  hereafter. 

All  galleries  running  at  right  angles  to  the  above  drifts 
must  incline  toward  the  drift  according  to  the  suggestions  on 
p.  267.  They  will  then  be  galleries  running  parallel  with  the 
strike  of  the  mineral  dip,  and  be  worked  along  the  face  of  the 
dip  or  inclined  plane. 

It  is  evident  that  a  slope  might  be  sunk  from  the  top  of  the 
hill,  Fig  8,  within  the  lode  A  B,  or  vein,  if  the  lode  was  wide 
enough,  and  no  drifts,  C  D,  E  F,  G  H,  be  made,  but  only 
galleries  (strike  galleries)  upon  the  vein,  and  along  it  parallel 
with  the  face  of  the  hill,  and  having  the  vein  as  both  floor 
and  roof;  or  they  might  be  only  partly  in  the  vein,  or  the 
gallery  might  be  outside  of  the  vein  entirely.  Figs.  9,  10 
and  11  will  explain. 

Fig.  9  represents  the  gallery  entirely  in  the  lode  to  be 
worked  out.  The  lode  A  B  is  wide  enough  for  the  gallery : 
the  roof  is  weak,  hence  it  is  timbered,  as  represented.  The 
side  walls,  hanging,  and  foot  walls  are  alone  strong. 


PRELIMINARY    WORK    AND    CONSIDERATIONS.  269 

Fig.  10  represents  a  case  where  this  gallery  is  partly  in  the 
rock  and  partly  in  the  lode.  If  the  lode  is  weak,  then  timber 
on  the  side — the  hanging  rock  is  strong,  and  you  can  trust  it 
for  roofing ;  or  when  the  rock  pitches,  timber  your  soft  lode 
rock,  as  in  Fig.  11,  putting  the  gallery  outside  of  the  lode  en- 
tirely. 

Fig  12  represents  the  gallery  entirely  within  the  lode  when 
the  lode  rock  is  the  only  safe  rock,  or  as  in  Figs.  13  and  14, 
when  the  rock  is  not  in  horizontal  strata ;  being,  Fig.  13, 
partly  in  gangue  rock  and  partly  in  the  mine  rock,  but  hav- 
ing the  hanging  rock  in  a  part  resting  upon  the  upper  tim- 
bering. In  Fig.  14  advantage  is  taken  of  the  lode  rock  for 
the  entire  top  of  the  gallery,  and  the  gallery  floor  is  laid  upon 
the  outside  or  gangue  rock.  In  all  these  cases  the  miner 
will  be  guided  in  the  timbering  by  the  nature  of  the  rock. 
In  some  cases  the  lode  will  be  timbered,  in  others  the  outside 
rock,  as  in  the  figures. 

In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  advantageous  to  build  a 
gallery  parallel  with  the  "  pay  rock,"  and  yet  some  eighty  or 
ninety  feet  off,  more  or  less,  according  to  circumstances,  and 
connect  the  pay  rock  with  the  gallery  by  offset  drivings, 
EEEE,  Fig.  15,  wherein  AB  represents  the  pay  rock  or 
lode,  CD  the  gallery,  and  EEEE  the  drivings.  In  this  and 
in  similar  cases  the  miner  must  timber  where  necessary,  and 
indeed,  either  timbering  or  stone  work  would  be  required  in 
such  a  case  as  this,  for  here  the  pay  rock  is  supposed  to  be 
strong  and  the  neighboring  rock  untrustworthy,  and  it  is  de- 
sirable, perhaps,  to  extract  all  the  pay  rock. 

In  general  it  is  advisable  to  follow  all  curves  in  the  pay 
rock  or  seam  by  most  gradual  turns  in  the  gallery,  which  is 
the  plan  above  suggested,  and  may  be  easily  accomplished,  as 


270  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  distance  between  AB  and  CD  will  allow  of  curves  of 
greater  or  lesser  intensity  even  when  the  pay  rock  A  B  sud- 
denly changes  its  course.  Thus  all  severe  bends  or  changes 
of  direction  in  tramways  and  other  methods  of  transit,  either 
to  or  fro  along  the  gallery,  unnecessary  obstructions  to  the 
easy  flow  of  air  in  ventilation,  and  other  objectionable  feat- 
ures of  mine  operation,  may  be  avoided. 

In  all  mining  operations  more  or  less  water  (mine  water) 
may  be  met  with.  Sometimes  it  increases  gradually,  at 
other  times  with  more  or  less  suddenness,  and  the  water 
channels  of  the  earth  may  be  likened  to  the  great  system  of 
blood-passages  or  channels  in  the  human  body.  In  general, 
where  the  water  enters  the  excavations  in  large  quantities,  a 
channel  may  be  let  into  the  floor  of  the  gallery  and  covered, 
as  in  Fig.  16.  Or,  if  the  water  supply  is  not  large,  it  may  be 
led  off  on  either  side,  though  in  general  the  water  gutter  or 
channel  should  be  made  on  the  side  which  cuts  into  the 
down  or  lower  slope  of  the  rock,  as  most  water  is  found  at 
that  side  (Figs.  17  and  18).  Wherever  the  channel  is  likely 
to  leak,  and  it  is  not  thought  proper  to  allow  the  mine-water 
to  escape  into  the  rock,  the  channel  may  be  either  clayed, 
timbered,  or  regularly  tiled  or  covered  with  mason  work,  as 
may  be  found  suitable  (Fig.  18).  For  here  it  should  be 
carefully  noticed  that,  as  in  Fig.  17,  where  a  fissure  occurs  in 
the  rock,  it  is  always  unwise  to  allow  water  to  run  along  the 
drain  over  such  a  fissure,  for  the  percolation  of  water  through 
fissures  may  lead  to  extra  work  in  some  unexpected  direction, 
and  the  work  of  removing  or  even  lifting  the  same  water  may 
be  found  necessary  on  some  lower  level,  where  gravitation 
may  add  to  the  cost  of  removing  that  water  which  now  might 
readily  and  with  little  extra  pains  be  carried  entirely  beyond 
the  mine. 


FIG.  13. 


PLATE  II. 
FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  17. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. 


To  face  page  270. 


PRELIMINARY    WORK    AND    CONSIDERATIONS.  271 

Where  expedition  is  required  the  miner  may  run  a  drift 
into  the  side  of  the  hill  on  the  proper  grade,  and,  while  a  set 
of  men  are  at  work  toward  the  shaft,  another  set  may  be 
working  downwards  or  from  the  shaft  A  B  toward  the  first 
set  at  C,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  19. 

Between  the  several  galleries  built  over  each  other  there 
may  be  a  vertical  distance  of  from  60  to  120  feet  thickness, 
but  the  lowest  gallery  may  run  beneath  the  level  of  the 
water  outside,  in  which  case,  the  water  not  being  able  to  run 
off,  will  accumulate  and  must  be  extracted  by  pumps. 
Generally  the  place  at  the  bottom  of  the  main  shaft — a  square 
hole  several  feet  deep — is  called  the  sumpt  (correctly  sumpf ), 
and  into  the  hole  all  the  drained  water  runs  by  gravity. 
The  main  or  principal  passage  may  be  called  the  gallery,  and 
the  parallel  galleries,  above  and  below,  may  be  called  the 
first,  middle,  and  lowest  lift,  course,  or  gangway,  as  in  Fig. 
20.  Where  more  than  three  occur  other  terms  are  used. 

In  some  mines  it  is  necessary  to  make  many  short  or  long 
drifts  or  oreways  into  the  side  of  the  shaft  between  the  usual 
lifts,  and  it  has  been  recommended  to  draw  not  only  the  ore 
and  other  minerals  from  these  secondary  drifts  or  levels,  but 
also  the  water,  by  methods  described  hereafter,  as  a  means  of 
saving  cost  upon  the  process  of  drawing  all  waters  from  the 
foot  of  the  shaft  whither  they  have  been  led  by  all  the  drains 
from  all  passages  whatever.  Before  any  steam  pumps  are 
placed  it  would  be  undoubtedly  best  to  pump  all  waters  and 
raise  all  dead  (useless)  rock  and  all  useful  material  from  the 
least  depth  as  a  matter  of  true  economy.  But  in  the  ad- 
vanced state  of  pumping  machinery,  where  large  pumps  can 
be  obtained  at  all,  very  little  additional  cost  will  purchase 
pumps  capable  of  forcing  water  from  great  depths,  where  any 


272  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

attempt  to  save  expense  by  or  forcing  from  two  or  more  levels 
by  distinct  pumps  would  be  an  expense  without  any  corres- 
ponding profit. 

Where,  from  the  level  nature  of  the  country,  no  entrance 
upon  the  mineral  lodes  can  be  made  by  drifts,  or  any 
horizontal  passages,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt,  from  the  begin- 
ning, the  SHAFT  method  of  reaching  the  objects  of  search  and 
of  mining.  These  shafts  may  be  intended  for  various  pur- 
poses, and  may  be  worked  from  several  points  and  places  both 
above  and  under  ground  in  a  mining  region.  They  may  be 
for  many  purposes,  but  they  may  be  divided  into  the  main,  or 
head  shaft,  or  hoist,  and  into  secondary  shafts  for  the  purposes 
of  connecting  the  ends  on  floor  and  roof  of  two  galleries  or 
gangways.  In  some  mines  they  are  worked  from  below 
upwards  or  from  above  downward,  the  former  being  a  very 
dangerous  and  inconvenient  method  when  the  soil  is  loose,  in 
which  latter  case  it  becomes  dangerous  even  to  dig  down- 
wards, except  where  the  lower  gallery  roof  is  sustained  by  a 
propped  ceiling,  when  the  miner  may  dig  down,  making  the 
danger  less  imminent  as  he  descends,  rather  than  increasing 
it,  as  in  the  former  case.  When  rock  is  to  be  penetrated  it  is 
possible  to  drill  from  below  upward  and  from  above  down- 
ward, although  even  then  it  is  doubtful  in  some  cases 
whether  it  is  economical  to  work  upward,  and  in  all  cases  it 
is  attended  with  danger  from  pieces  of  rock  half  detached 
falling  upon  the  workman. 

Where  the  shaft  is  intended  for  the  entrance  of  light,  and 
opens  to  day,  it  is  called  the  day-shaft,  but  such  a  shaft  is 
rarely  opened.  Generally,  the  main  shaft,  towards  which  all 
the  underground  drains  run,  is  the  one  at  the  foot  of  which 
is  a  deep  cistern  or  reservoir  into  which  are  received  the  mine 


FIG.  20. 


PLATE  III. 


FIG.  21. 


Gk:    ( 


FIG.  23. 


FIG.  24. 


To  face  page  27 '2. 


PRELIMINARY    WORK    AND    CONSIDERATIONS.  273 

waters  and  which  is  called  the  sumpt,  and  in  many  cases  it 
occupies  the  spot  immediately  over  the  "  carriage "  or  box 
used  to  let  the  men  down  and  bring  up  the  ore  or  coal.  It  is 
more  out  of  the  way  here,  and  as  no  one  should  ever  stand 
under  the  carriage,  and  no  one  can  when  it  is  down,  there  is 
less  danger  of  getting  into  it  in  this  position  than  if  put  in 
any  other.  Nevertheless,  it  is  plain  that  when  slopes  occur, 
this  might  not  be  the  only  proper  or  convenient  place. 

The  advantage  of  the  slope  over  the  perpendicular  shaft  is 
generally  apparent  when  by  the  slope  we  can  pass  down  upon 
the  dip  of  the  vein  or  along  a  line  lying  in  the  direction  of 
the  strike — thus  taking  out  the  useful  mineral  from  the  open- 
ing of  the  mining  work.  For  it  is  evident  that  compared 
with  a  shaft  there  is  no  economy  of  time  or  distance  in  using 
a  slope  to  reach  the  same  spot  in  the  mine,  as  a  longer  way  is 
to  be  traversed,  which,  in  the  long  run,  seems  to  amount  to 
much  useless  consumption  of  time  and  power,  and  in  addition 
involves  loss  of  material  in  wear  and  tear  of  engine,  strain, 
<3tc.  But  there  are  cases  where  the  slope,  despite  these  disad- 
vantages, is  profitable,  especially  where  there  is  no  dead  work 
(work  yielding  no  mineral)  in  driving  the  slope,  while  there 
may  be  much  in  sinking  a  shaft. 

A  cross  section  of  one  method  of  shaft-framing  may  be 
•seen  in  Fig.  21. 

Here,  if  we  assume  the  general  proportions,  from  15  to  18 
feet  long  and  6  feet  broad,  we  have  a  rectangular  opening  in 
the  rock,  or  loose  earth,  divided  into  four  compartments :  A 
for  the  mine  water  pump,  B  for  the  ascent  of  the  miners,  and 
C  D  for  the  raising  of  material. 

This  is  probably  the  greatest  number  of  divisions,  and  an 
unnecessary  amount,  for  in  some  of  our  most  important  ore 
18 


274  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

and  coal  mines  it  is  customary  to  make  but  two  grand  divi- 
sions, for  example,  making  the  A  division  both  a  pumping 
shaft  and  upcast,  and  of  the  division  B  both  hoist-way  for 
material  and  miners  and  downcast  for  ventilation  where  the 
ventilation  is  by  furnace.  In  the  latter  case,  six  by  ten  or 
eleven  feet  is  usually  sufficiently  large.  But  all  this  may  be 
modified  by  particular  emergencies. 

In  beginning  and  in  the  prosecution  of  a  shaft,  it  is  import- 
ant that  after  the  proper  location  has  been  decided  upon,  the 
exact  vertical  direction,  or  in  case  of  a  slope,  the  inclination, 
should  be  exactly  and  continuously  preserved.  A  straight 
and  vertical  shaft  may  be  used  as  both  an  experimental  and 
permanent  shaft,  though  originally  built  only  to  determine 
the  direction  of  the  vein  or  the  slope  or  dip  of  the  mineral 
seam  ;  thus  in  Fig.  22  we  have  an  illustration. 

When,  however,  as  partly  suggested  in  Fig.  22,  the  ore,  lode 
or  seam  appears  of  undetermined  angle,  it  is  more  economical 
to  sink  another  shaft,  more  as  a  trial  shaft,  between  the  surface 
points  A  H,  which  will  more  certainly  determine  the  direction 
of  the  slope,  as  the  depth  will  always  be  much  less  than  at  A~ 
If  successful,  the  shaft  may  for  some  purposes  be  used  to  better 
advantage  than  the  shaft  at  A. 

But  having  sunk  the  shaft  on  the  vertical  line  A  B  and 
finding  the  vein  when  C  is  reached,  it  may  be  approximately 
determined  from  what  direction  the  seam  slopes  towards  C» 
and  therefore  workmen  may  immediately  begin  to  drive  a 
gallery  at  C  while  others  work  out  a  drift  at  D  toward  E,  or  at 
F  toward  G.  In  a  slope  the  seam  or  dip  would  become  itself 
the  line  of  direction  for  the  work,  and  would  determine  the 
angle  of  inclination  of  the  vein,  as  seen  in  Fig.  23. 

Here  SS  is  the  slope  sunk  to  A,  having  one  lift  or  gallery  at 


ON  THE  OPENING  OF  MINES.  275 

B,  and  the  mine  is  in  course  of  construction.  While  the 
above  methods  may  be  suitable  in  some  rocks,  in  others  the 
lode  or  gangue  may  be  so  unstable  or  weak  as  to  require  for 
safety  and  economy  that  the  shaft  be  sunk  as  in  Fig.  24,  and 
approaches  be  made  to  the  material  to  be  worked  out  upon 
(in  this  case)  the  gradually  lengthening  gangways  CC}  DD. 
Especially  is  this  so  when  the  lode  AE  is  on  a  very  steep  in- 
cline, as  in  Fig.  24. 

In  coal-beds  the  slope  would  be  put  down  along  the  dip  of 
the  coal,  which  would  be  represented  by  AB,  Fig.  24. 

In  opening  the  shaft  in  rock  or  soil,  it  is  recommended  to 
begin  at  a  narrow  end  or  the  shortest  side  of  the  rectangle, 
and  blast  or  open  out  toward  the  other  end,  always  sinking 
deeper  at  the  beginning  that  the  water  may  find  a  little 
sumpt  and  be  readily  pumped  out.  By  reference  to  Fig.  25, 
it  will  be  seen  that  either  slope,  or  shaft,  may  begin  with 
the  same  rectangular  space  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground 
at  AC.  but  the  long  side  will  generally  be  toward  the  engine 
or  machinery  for  pumping  or  raising.  The  reason  will  readily 
be  seen  by  noticing  the  divisions  in  Fig.  21,  for  no  chains  or 
pump-trunks  or  pipes  should  run  along  the  length  unless 
there  be  some  reason  compensating  for  the  expense  of  un- 
necessarily increased  ropes,  chains,  pipes,  etc.  After  suffi- 
ciently descending,  the  main  lift  or  galleries  can  be  com- 
menced, always  giving  a  fair  foothold  or  start  into  the 
gallery  before  the  shaft  is  continued  downward  below  the 
foot,  or  floor,  of  the  newly  begun  side  work.  Where  there  is 
no  special  expedition  called  for,  it  is  better  to  proceed  further 
upon  the  new  level,  using  the  shaft  bottom,  now  at  level  with 
the  cross-cut  or  gallery,  for  the  place  whence  either  the 
gangue  rock  or  mineral  may  be  lifted,  at  least  until  the  vein 


276  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

is  fairly  opened  upon,  and  the  cross-cut  finished,  or  dead  rock 
removed. 

In  some  ore-gangways  opening  into  the  shaft,  it  is  recom- 
mended to  lower  the  level  or  floor  of  the  gangway  at  the 
mouth  Or  opening  into  the  shaft  as  represented  in  Fig.  26,  A, 
thus  allowing  a  space  below  the  floor  level  for  delivering  the 
ore  out  of  the  way  of  the  gallery  level  where  it  may  be 
handled  before  delivering  into  the  shaft. 

Where  the  roof  is  weak  it  is  advised  to  sink  two  side-pits 
EE.  Put  solid  timber  up  in  these  pits  to  support  the  roof, 
and  then  remove  the  intervening  embankment  for  the  low- 
ered level.  (See  ground  view,  Fig.  27.) 

It  may  be  timbered  as  in  the  elevation,  Fig.  28.  The  usual 
timbering  may  then  be  made  to  complete  the  safety  and  use- 
fulness of  this  dumping  flat  or  depression. 

The  depth  of  this  dumping  floor  or  pit  might  be  five  or  six 
feet,  and  as  wide  as  the  shaft.  By  this  pit,  ore,  etc.,  might  be 
kept  below  the  level  until  all  hands  can  attend  to  the  lifting. 
This  is  a  German  method,  but  not  an  economical  one  in  all 
cases,  especially  where  the  ore-cart,  running  on  tramways, 
may  be  filled  by  the  miners,  run  along  the  gangway  to  the 
shaft,  and  even  upon  the  floor  of  a  shaft-hoist,  or  cage  pre- 
pared for  that  purpose,  thus  dispensing  with  all  this  hand- 
ling, necessary  where  the  ore  is  thrown  into  such  a  depression 
at  the  shaft. 

In  some  shafts  where  the  water  is  troublesome  it  is  led  off 
from  the  side  walls  by  inclined  gutters  or  grooves  in  the  rock, 
and  conducted  into  niches  or  recesses  in  the  side  of  the  shaft 
as  represented,  Figs.  29,  30,  where  it  may  be  retained  and 
from  which  it  may  be  pumped  before  going  further  down. 

The  abutments  A  B  are  either  of  stone  or  of  timber,  and 


FIG.  25. 
0A  C  o 


FIG.  27. 


FIG.  29. 


PLATE  IV. 
FIG.  26. 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  30. 


To  face  page  27 '6. 


ON  THE  OPENING  OF  MINES.  277 

the  spaces  between  them  and  the  sides  opposite  the  shafts  are 
made  wide  enough  to  allow  of  the  free  passage  of  the  buckets, 
miners,  etc.  Although  cases  may  occur  where  this  method 
may  be  adopted  with  advantage,  it  is  seldom  called  for  except 
when  an  outflow  at  some  particular  place  might  cause  trouble 
in  allowing  water  to  fall  down  the  shaft  and  become  a  great 
inconvenience. 

As  the  construction  of  the  shaft  and  horizontal  ways  is  of 
great  importance,  reference  is  made  to  other  parts  of  this 
treatise  where  this  very  important  art  in  mining  is  stated 
more  at  large. 

ON  THE  OPENING  OF  MINES. 

In  order  to  reap  the  greatest  possible  advantage  from  a 
deposit  of  mineral  which,  after  preliminary  prospecting,  is 
deemed  sufficiently  rich  to  reward  the  labor  and  expense  of 
mining,  it  is  necessary,  first,  to  open  and  explore  the  deposit 
(bed,  vein,  lode,  or  mine),  that  is,  to  find  out  its  extent,  the 
thickness  and  richness  of  the  ore  or  mineral. 

As  long  as  a  vein,  or  lode,  runs  in  a  well-defined  shape  and 
size,  in  unbroken  connection  and  uniform  direction,  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  opening  and  exploring  the  mine.  All  that  is 
necessary  is  simply  to  follow  it.  But  it  is  frequently  the  case 
that  changes  and  interruptions  and  diverse  departures  from 
regularity  occur,  and  these  demand  not  only  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  mineral  deposits,  but  some  knowledge  of  the  partic- 
ular country  where  a  mine  is  to  be  opened,  and  much  careful 
observation. 

The  opening,  or  exploring  of  a  mine,  begins  really  with  the 
work  of  prospecting,  and  is  only  a  continuation  of  that  work. 
One  of  the  most  important  general  rules  to  be  observed  in 


278  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

opening,  or  exploring  a  deposit,  is  to  follow  it  to  the  end  in  its 
two  main  directions,  namely,  its  horizontal  direction,  or  bearing, 
and  its  inclined  direction,  or  dip,  and  this  ought  to  be  done, 
although  both  the  richness  and  the  thickness  of  the  vein  decrease. 
Another  rule  is  to  pay  constant  and  close  attention  to  the  gen- 
eral direction  of  the  vein,  the  nature  of  the  mass  composing 
the  vein,  and  also  the  nature  of  the  sides.  If  the  vein  be 
thin,  or  there  is  danger  of  losing  it,  the  better  plan  is  to  begin 
in  the  centre  of  the  exploring  tunnel,  or  shaft,  and  from  that 
part  note  carefully  every  change.  The  most  important 
changes  are  :  (1)  the  splitting,  forking,  or  scattering  of  a  vein  ; 
(2)  the  compression,  or,  as  miners  call  it,  the  pinching  of  the 
vein  ;  and  (3)  shifts,  or  faults. 

If  a  vein  divides  into  several  branches,  it  is  best  to  follow 
the  one  which  continues  in  the  main  direction,  more  especi- 
ally if  it  be  the  largest,  and  the  surrounding  rock,  or  gangue. 
correspond  to  the  undivided  vein.  The  remaining  branches, 
or  forks,  and  also  any  veins,  or  threads,  that  may  be  discov- 
ered in  either  wall,  are  reserved  for  a  future  investigation,  and 
to  indicate  their  location  they  are  cut  into  to  the  depth  of  a 
few  inches. 

If  a  vein  becomes  thin  or  pinched,  it  is  best  to  follow  what- 
ever traces  there  may  be  in  the  main  direction.  Sometimes  a 
vein  appears  pinched  out  because  the  "  filling  up"  (or  "pay 
gangue'")  leaves  the  main  seam  or  stratum,  and  the  ore  shifts 
from  one  side  to  the  other.  In  such  cases  it  is  best  to  attack 
the  seam  in  its  average  direction,  and  occasionally  to  work 
above  it  as  well  as  below. 

When  a  vein  or  lode  is  intersected  by  another,  and  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  one  that  is  in  process  of  opening  cannot  be 
found  in  the  same  direction,  and  when  there  is  consequently 


ON  THE  OPENING  OF  MINES.  279 

reason  to  suspect  a  shift  (slide,  fault),  then  the  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  examine  carefully  the  intersection,  to  discover,  if 
possible,  from  the  manner  in  which  the  vein  enters  or  com- 
bines with  the  dyke  or  cross  vein,  on  which  side  the  offcast  is 
likely  to  be  found.  Should  this  remain  doubtful,  then  the 
intersecting  dyke  or  cross  vein  is  to  be  followed  for  some  dis- 
tance in  both  directions,  being  careful  to  observe  the  traces  of 
the  gangue  rock,  closely  examining  every  diverging  seam,  and 
following  the  most  promising  until  fully  convinced  that  all 
has  been  examined.  It  is  sometimes  the  case  that  the  inter- 
secting (transverse)  vein  wholly  takes  up  the  mineral  sought 
for,  so  that  no  offcast  or  only  a  very  weak  one  is  found ;  in 
which  case  the  intersecting  vein  may  itself  be  worth  mining. 

In  opening  a  deposit  of  mineral  it  must  be  remembered 
that  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  the  gangue  and  the 
•ore,  for  the  latter  is  only  a  part  of  the  former  ;  still  it  preserves 
its  own  form  and  direction,  which  demand  special  attention. 
Thus,  for  example,  the  lenticular  mass  of  ore  A  B,  Fig.  31,  is 
at  different  levels  of  different  thickness  or  power,  as  the  tun- 
nels ODE  indicate,  and  because  of  the  rise  (inclination)  of 
the  deposit,  the  tunnel  and  shafts  are  not  continuously  in  ore, 
tout  enter  sooner  or  later  into  the  barren  overlying  or  under- 
lying rock.  Of  all  this  the  first  tunnel,  with  its  upper  and 
lower  levels,  ought  to  furnish  sufficient  data  to  determine 
where  the  limits  of  the  pay  ore  are  and  how  far  it  is  proper  to 
proceed  with  the  work  of  opening,  so  as  not  to  incur  useless 
•expense  and  labor.  In  general  it  is  a  good  rule  to  infer  the 
unknown  from  what  is  well  known. 

The  rise  (inclination)  of  the  ore  requires  special  considera- 
tion in  opening  a  lower  or  foot  drift  or  adit.  If,  for  example, 
It  were  proposed  to  attack  the  ore-mass  A  B,  Fig.  31,  by 


280  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

means  of  an  adit  (drift)  from  the  point  F,  it  is  plain  that  the 
ore  would  not  be  reached,  but  the  adit  would  pass  below  it 
into  the  mountain.  Before  a  foot  of  adit  is  opened,  there  must 
be  sufficient  evidence  to  show  that  the  ore  reaches  down  as- 
low  as  the  level  on  which  it  is  intended  to  drive  the  adit,  and 
that  it  has  not  already  been  pitched  away. 

To  determine  where  the  work  of  opening  a  deposit  is  to- 
begin  and  how  it  is  to  be  carried  on,  it  is  necessary  to  con- 
sider the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  situation  of  the  de- 
posit. If  the  mountain  be  steep  and  the  strike  of  the  vein 
parallel  to  the  slope  of  the  mountain,  the  shortest  way  to 
attack  it  is  by  means  of  a  tunnel  from  the  slope  to  the  vein, 
unless  there  should  be  in  some  ravine  close  by  an  outcrop  or 
edge  which  would  make  the  deposit  more  accessible.  On 
reaching  the  deposit  by  means  of  a  cross-tunnel,  galleries  are 
made  in  it  to  the  right  and  left  and  shafts  are  sunk  in  the 
direction  of  its  dip. 

If,  however,  the  strike  of  the  vein  be  across  the  strike  of  the 
mountain  ridge,  then  the  work  of  opening  is  begun  on  the 
line  of  the  strike,  and,  if  possible,  at  a  point  where  it  opens 
out.  There  a  tunnel  is  driven  along  the  course  of  the  vein 
and  shafts  are  sunk.  The  tunnel  is  commenced  as  low  down 
as  the  known  depth  of  the  deposit  will  permit. 

If  the  deposit  to  be  opened  be  greatly  inclined,  or  if  it 
strike  under  a  plain,  it  is  opened  by  sinking  two  inclined 
shafts  at  suitable  distances  from  each  other  in  the  direction  of 
its  fall  and  uniting  them  by  a  gallery.  Perpendicular  shafts 
may  also  be  substituted  for  the  inclined,  which  are  sunk  in 
the  overlying  or  hanging  rock,  provided  it  be  solid ;  but  if  not 
of  sufficient  solidity  and  firmness  the  shafts  are  sunk  in  the 
underlying  rock,  and  in  both  cases  the  two  shafts  are  brought 


PLATE  V. 


FIG.  31. 


FIG.  32. 


FIG.  33. 

D  F 


FIG.  34. 


A  J 


To  face  page  280. 


ON  THE  OPENING  OF  MINES.  281 

in  connection  with  the  deposit  by  means  of  tunnels,  A  B,  Fig. 
32.  The  shafts  should  be  sunk  in  such  a  manner  as  to  pierce 
the  deposit  at  a  medium  depth. 

A  deposit  or  bed,  nearly  horizontal,  which  lies  under  a 
plain,  is  opened  by  means  of  two  perpendicular  shafts,  which 
shall  arrive  at  points  in  the  same  line  of  the  dip  not  in  the 
line  of  the  strike  and  which  are  united  by  a  tunnel  cut  in  the 
deposit. 

The  opening  of  large  irregular  deposits  is  nearly  the  same 
as  that  of  veins  and  beds ;  only  this  is  to  be  remarked,  that  it 
is  not  advisable  to  make  shafts  pass  through  standing  masses  ; 
it  is  better  to  put  the  shaft  some  little  distance  away  in  the 
barren  rock  and  open  the  deposit  by  means  of  tunnels  driven 
from  the  shafts. 

The  nests  or  kidneys  of  ore  lying  separate  from  each  other 
offer  the  greatest  difficulty  in  opening  and  preparing  them  for 
mining.  The  facts  by  which  the  miner  has  to  be  guided  are 
very  few  and  rather  vague.  As  a  general  rule  these  deposits 
occur  in  a  narrow  strip  of  the  mountains  and  observe  a  certain 
direction ;  in  this  strip  the  rock  is  of  a  different  nature  from 
that  outside  of  it,  and  the  nests,  pockets  or  detached  masses 
are  sometimes  connected  by  slender  seams  and  traces  which 
may  serve  as  guides.  Such  deposits  are  attacked  by  means 
of  a  tunnel  driven  to  their  lower  extremity,  or  by  a  shaft  sunk 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood,  and  they  are  mined  from  be- 
low upward. 

Well-conducted,  scientific,  systematic  mining  requires  that 
the  opening  and  exploring  of  a  deposit  should  always  be  in 
advance  of  the  work  of  extracting  the  ore.  Moreover,  it  is 
important  not  to  continue  on  the  first  opened  level  until  that 
be  exhausted,  but  to  go  down  to  the  lower  parts  of  the  deposit 


282  MINERALS,  MINES,     AND    MINING. 

as  soon  as  practicable,  for  in  many  cases  the  ore  is  extracted 
and  the  mine  exhausted  more  economically  from  below  up- 
wards :  1st,  because  the  empty  spaces  in  the  higher  levels 
afford  free  course  to  the  water  and  thus  increase  the  quantity 
of  that  troublesome  element,  which  becomes  more  and  more 
annoying  the  deeper  the  mine  is  worked  ;  2d,  because  it  is 
much  more  difficult  to  support  spaces  formed  by  working  from 
above  downwards  than  the  opposite ;  3d,  because  many  de- 
posits from  their  nature  are  more  easily  exhausted  from  below 
upwards. 

In  going  down  to  the  depth  of  the  deposit,  necessary  pro- 
vision must  be  made  in  time  for  removing  the  water  from  the 
mine. 

Systematic  mining  also  requires  that  both  during  the  pre- 
paratory work  of  opening  a  deposit  and  also  during  the  actual 
working  of  it,  the  foot  wall  and  the  roof  of  the  vein  should  be 
pierced  occasionally  to  discover,  if  possible,  mineral  deposits 
that  may  lie  on  either  side  of  the  one  that  is  worked,  and  thus 
to  secure  for  the  mine  a  long  and  prosperous  future. 

One  good  result  of  this  will  be  the  furnishing  of  clear 
knowledge  concerning  the  extent  and  limits  of  the  metallife- 
rous mass,  the  extent  of  the  richer  ore,  and  the  various 
changes  which  they  exhibit.  In  these  respects  transverse 
galleries  do  good  service  :  cross  clefts  and  fissures  are  also  im- 
portant guides,  not  only  because  they  save  labor,  but  also  be- 
eause  frequently  they  are  either  themselves  metalliferous  or 
increase  the  richness  of  deposits  with  which  they  unite. 

FINAL  PREPARATIONS  AND  WORKING  OF  MINES. 

The  opening  and  exploring  of  a  mine  are  succeeded  by 
another  preparatory  work,  namely,  the  division  of  the  mineral 


FINAL    PREPARATIONS    AND    WORKING    OF    MINES.          283 

deposit  or  matter  into  smaller  portions,  and  both  these  labors 
find  their  termination  in  the  actual  working  or  "  stoping " 
out  the  ore.  This  final  work,  with  the  preparation  immedi- 
ately preceding  it,  is  affected  very  much  by  the  bearing  and 
inclination  and  by  the  thickness  and  regularity  of  the  vein  to 
be  mined.  Veins,  beds,  detached  masses,  etc.,  require  differ- 
ent methods  of  working.  Still  there  are  some  general  prin- 
ciples common  to  all  the  different  methods.  The  deposits  to 
be  mined,  viewed  as  general  masses,  are  generally  divided 
into  smaller  portions  by  means  of  levels,  drifts,  intermediate 
drifts,  etc.,  and  by  shafts  and  wings,  and  thus  the  masses  are 
prepared  for  the  more  complete  extraction  of  their  most  valu- 
able material.  When  a  mine  is  thus  prepared  the  ore  is  then 
said  to  be  "  exposed"  The  different  levels  and  drifts  and  also 
the  wings  ought  to  be  at  uniform  distances  from  each  other, 
in  order  not  only  that  the  mine  may  present  the  appearance 
of  regularity,  but  also  because  this  method  aids  greatly  in 
taking  out  the  ore  with  system  and  order,  and  it  renders 
superintendence  and  oversight  much  easier. 

Systematic  mining  requires  a  thoughtful  consideration  of  a 
variety  of  matters.  And,  first  of  all,  there  ought  to  be  estab- 
lished a  correct  relation  between  the  preparatory  work  and 
the  extracting  of  the  ore,  that  is,  for  every  three  or  four 
miners  engaged  in  extracting  ore  that  has  been  exposed  to 
view  by  previous  preparatory  work,  there  ought  to  be  one 
miner  engaged  in  this  preparatory  or  prospective  work,  so 
that  the  final  work  may  not  follow  right  on  the  heels  of  the 
preparatory,  or,  which  would  be  still  worse,  go  on  without 
any  such  preparatory  work. 

Again,  mining  to  be  conducted  judiciously  requires  that  all 
the  exposed  ore  be  not  hewn  out  as  soon  as  exposed,  but  a 


284  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

part  of  it,  especially  that  in  the  higher  levels,  be  held  as  re- 
serve in  order  to  provide  against  a  time  of  need,  and  also  that 
an  average  may  be  brought  about  between  higher  and  lower, 
richer  and  poorer  ores,  which  is  the  more  necessary,  since  the 
lower  we  go  the  greater  the  difficulty  and  cost  of  mining  and 
the  poorer  or  less  abundant  are  the  ores.  Judicious  mining, 
therefore,  does  not  allow  the  avaricious  taking  out  of  ores 
which  are  rich  and  easily  accessible,  while  the  poorer  ores,  or 
those  most  difficult  to  mine,  are  left  neglected,  but  it  seeks  to 
gain  the  rich  with  the  poor,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to  save  all 
that  is  valuable. 

A  mine  which  is  worked  without  care  for  the  future  and 
without  regard  for  a  judicious  management  of  reserves,  degen- 
erates into  what  the  Germans  call  a  u  robbing  of  the  mine." 
The  consequences  of  such  a  course  are  easily  predicted :  the 
inferior  ores  that  remain  do  not  justify  the  expense  of  prop- 
erly opening  and  fitting  up  the  mine,  and  sometimes  not  even 
the  expense  of  extracting  them,  and  the  owners  must  either 
give  up  some  of  their  former  profits,  or  give  up  the  mine  and 
leave  a  large  mass  of  useful  mineral  unextracted. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  equally  important  to  gain  the  ore 
in  a  mine  as  easily  and  cheaply  as  possible.  To  secure  this  it 
is  necessary  to  adopt  some  system  with  reference  to  the  work, 
and  also  with  reference  to  the  hands  employed.  As  a  general 
rule  a  stronger  force  is  put  to  work  in  the  lower  levels  than  in 
the  higher,  so  that  the  lowest  part  of  the  mine  may  be  soonest 
exhausted  and  the  cost  of  keeping  out  the  water  and  bringing 
the  products  to  the  surface  lessened. 

It  is  also  a  good  rule  not  to  scatter  the  working  force  over 
too  wide  a  space,  but  keep  them  in  a  limited  field,  and  when 
that  is  finished  let  it  be  left  forever.  In  this  way  a  good  deal 


VEINS    AND    LODES.  285 

is  saved  in  oversight  which  is  generally  very  expensive,  and 
more  is  saved  in  not  having  to  keep  open  and  in  repair  long- 
galleries,  gangways,  or  deep  shafts,  which  would  require  ex- 
pensive carpentry  or  masonry. 

As  to  the  number  of  miners  to  be  employed,  it  is  always 
better  to  have  too  few  than  too  many,  lest  they  should  be  in 
each  other's  way. 

Finally,  suitable  provision  must  be  made  for  a  thorough 
draining  or  ventilation  of  the  mine,  for  short  and  cheap  trans- 
portation, and  for  the  security  of  the  mine  and  the  lives  of  the 
miners,  guarding  them  against  being  buried  alive  by  the  cav- 
ing in  of  any  portion  of  the  mine,  or  being  burned  to  death  by 
-carelessness  or  insufficiency  of  protection  in  other  respects. 

VEINS  AND  LODES.     How  PREPARED  AND  MINED. 

After  the  work  of  opening  and  exploring  has  sufficiently 
advanced,  some  further  arrangements  have  to  be  made  to 
mine  the  ore  to  the  best  advantage. 

If  the  vein  be  not  over  twelve  feet  thick,  and  preparations 
are  to  be  made  for  mining  overhead,  then  the  method  will  be 
as  follows :  From  the  main  gangway  or  tunnel,  A  B,  Fig.  33, 
we  pierce  shafts  120,  130,  or  240  feet  apart,  as  CD,  E  F,  Fig. 
33  ;  these  shafts  follow  the  inclination  of  the  vein,  and  are 
made  60  or  70  feet  upward.  From  these  shafts  we  pierce 
drifts,  G  H,  IK,  and  also  shorter  intermediate  drifts,  L  M, 
N  0.  In  this  manner  we  proceed  until  the  next  adit  or  level 
is  reached.  In  this  way  the  shafts  are  connected,  the  vein  is 
explored,  the  ore  is  exposed,  and  ventilation  and  transporta- 
tion provided. 

Whilst  these  preparations  are  made  overhead,  similar  work 
is  done  below  the  floor  of  the  main  gangway.  Thus,  from  the 


286  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

gangway  A  B,  Fig.  34,  a  shaft  C  D  is  sunk,  either  inclined  and 
following  the  dip  of  the  vein,  or  perpendicular  in  the  hanging 
rock ;  in  the  latter  case  cross-tunnels  are  driven  from  the  shaft 
until  they  meet  the  vein.  From  those  points,  or  at  suitable 
distances  in  the  incline  shaft,  drifts  are  cut  along  the  bearing 
of  the  vein,  as  E  F,  G  H;  then  from  the  lower  drift  to  the 
upper  one,  shafts  are  pierced,  as  I K,  L  M,  N  0,  with  or  with- 
out short  intermediate  drifts,  P  Q,  R  S,  and  thus  the  ore  is 
reached.  If,  during  the  work  of  opening  the  vein  as  de- 
scribed in  the  sections  on  the  opening  of  mines,  the  extent  of 
the  pay-ore  has  become  known,  then  the  shafts  are  arranged 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  whole  mass  to  be  mined  may  be 
divided  into  equal  portions,  or  the  first  shaft,  opened  as  C  D, 
Fig.  33,  is  placed  in  the  centre  of  the  field  and  the  other  shafts 
at  regular  distances  on  each  side. 

As  soon  as  this  preparatory  work  has  sufficiently  advanced, 
the  final  work  of  exhausting  the  mine  is  commenced.  There 
are  two  ways  of  doing  this,  either  by  attacking  the  ore  over- 
head, or  by  attacking  the  ore  under  foot.  The  former  method 
is  especially  adapted  for  steep  veins ;  the  latter  method  is  suit- 
able for  either  steep  or  flat  deposits. 

Mining  overhead,  or  by  reverse  or  ascending  steps,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  may  be  conducted  in  two  ways.  The  first 
consists  of  leaving  a  strip  M,  Fig.  35,  of  vein  matter  which 
serves  as  a  floor  for  the  miners  to  stand  on  and  for  holding 
the  rubbish.  A  more  minute  description  would  be  as  follows  : 
Let  A  B,  Fig.  35,  represent  the  main  gangway  ;  G  F  is  a  shaft 
from  which  the  work  is  to  commence ;  at  the  point  C.  are 
placed  two  miners  upon  a  platform,  who  commence  excavat- 
ing drifts  six  feet  in  height,  the  one  towards  D,  the  other 
towards  E.  They  do  not  commence  immediately  over  the 


PLATE  VI. 


FIG.  35. 


FIG.  37. 


FIG.  36. 


FIG.  38. 


To  face  page  286. 


VEINS    AND    LODES.  287 

roof  of  the  main  gangway,  but  leave  a  strip  M,  of  from  3  to 
6  feet  in  thickness,  which  serves  as  a  floor  for  the  drift  they 
are  excavating.  As  soon  as  these  drifts  have  advanced  2  or  3 
fathoms  the  drifts  marked  2  are  commenced,  then  3,  and  so 
on  until  the  next  gangway  is  reached,  where  again  a  strip 
similar  to  M  is  left  and  the  work  proceeds  as  before. 

From  the  material  that  is  there  hewn  out  the  ore  is  selected 
and  the  barren  rocks  are  used  for  filling  up  the  empty  space, 
or  for  supporting  the  overhanging  material.  The  miner 
stands  upon  this  rubbish,  and  in  order  that  the  smaller 
pieces  of  rich  ore  may  not  be  lost  among  the  rubbish,  a  floor 
has  to  be  prepared  by  from  time  to  time  filling  in  smaller 
pieces. 

In  order  that  the  ore  obtained  may  be  more  easily  taken  to 
the  surface  by  means  of  the  main  gangway,  there  are  pierced 
through  the  strip  M,  in  distances  20  or  30  fathoms  apart,  pit- 
falls R,  S,  Fig.  36,  kept  open  by  timber  casings  as  far  as  the 
rubbish  accumulates.  In  the  same  manner  the  shaft  F  Gy 
Fig.  36,  is  treated,  unless  indeed  it  be  deemed  expedient  to 
wall  it  up  with  rock  and  use  it  as  a  transporting  shaft. 

The  method  just  described,  i.  e.,  the  leaving  of  a  strip 
instead  of  making  a  strong  frame  by  timbering,  is  not  always 
to  be  recommended.  For  in  view  of  little  thickness  the  tim- 
bering does  not  cost  a  great  deal,  therefore  there  is  no  great 
saving ;  and  in  view  of  great  thickness  these  strips  are  dan- 
gerous unless  they  are  taken  very  thick,  which  would  involve 
the  loss  of  a  large  quantity  of  ore,  for  it  is  generally  deemed 
essential  to  take  the  strip  three  or  four  times  the  thickness  of 
the  vein.  It  is  only  where  these  veins  are  to  be  worked,  and 
where  at  the  same  time  the  gangue  is  both  easily  mined  and 
firm,  and  where  wood  is  scarce,  that  this  method  would  be 
advantageous. 


288  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

The  other  method  of  working  overhead  is  as  follows :  The 
roof  of  the  gangway  or  tunnel,  in  Fig.  37,  is  used  as  the  floor 
of  the  first  drift,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  prepared  with 
heavy  timber  or  stone  arch,  K,  of  sufficient  strength  to  sup- 
port the  rubbish  V.  Thus,  as  the  drift  marked  1,  in  Fig.  37, 
advances  from  C,  the  timbering  or  walled  arch  follows  it.  If 
the  rubbish  rises  too  high  or  becomes  too  heavy,  additional 
supports,  as  K',  have  to  be  provided  in  order  that  the  entire 
weight  may  not  be  held  up  by  one  set  of  timbers,  as  at  K,  but 
be  distributed  over  several  as  at  K,  Kf,  etc.  The  side  of  the 
shaft  taken  away  is  replaced  by  timber  casings,  as  at  C  Z,  or 
a  wall  is  made  of  the  larger  pieces  of  barren  rock. 

Every  10,  20  or  30  fathoms'  distance  apart  holes  are  left  in 
the  roof  K,  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  down  the  ore  as  it  is 
hewn  out.  Large  pieces  of  very  rich  ore  are  handed  down  in 
sacks  or  baskets,  to  prevent  loss  from  the  rougher  mode  of 
handling. 

The  method  of  working  downwards  is  simply  the  reverse  of 
that  just  described.  In  Fig.  38,  let  A  B  represent  a  main 
level  or  gangway  ;  C  D  is  a  shaft  sunk  along  the  slope  of  the 
vein.  At  the  point  C  a  miner  begins  to  excavate  the  drift  1 . 
When  he  has  proceeded  a  few  fathoms  another  miner  com- 
mences drift  2,  and  so  on.  In  this  way  the  working  presents 
the  appearance  of  descending  stairs.  As  in  the  case  of  the 
overhead  working,  so  here  the  work  may  be  carried  on  on 
two  sides  simultaneously.  In  this  method  the  miners  stand 
not  on  the  rubbish,  but  on  the  ore.  The  ore  hewn  out  in  this 
manner  is  hoisted  up  by  means  of  a  windlass  or  in  some  other 
way  through  openings  left  in  the  floor  of  the  tunnel,  and  the 
rubbish  is  thrown  on  timber  casings,  K,  which  are  formed 
between  each  two  drifts  and  laid  securely  with  heavy  timbers. 


VEINS    AND    LODES.  289 

Since  the  floor  of  the  tunnel  A  B  and  the  side  of  the  shaft 
C  D,  Fig.  38,  are  hewn  away  by  the  first  drift,  their  places 
have  to  be  supplied  by  timbers  Z. 

In  coal  mines  this  method  of  working  by  descending  steps 
has  been  abandoned,  because  where  the  miners  stand  upon 
the  coal  they  crush  the  coal ;  moreover,  ventilation  is  more 
•difficult  and  a  great  deal  of  timber  is  required. 

In  both  these  methods  of  mining,  i.  e.,  descending  steps  and 
reversed  steps,  the  ore  presents  two  exposed  sides,  one  in  front 
and  the  other  either  above  or  below ;  sometimes  the  miner 
forms  a  third.  For,  if  the  vein  has  a  selvage  or  partition 
rock,  easily  worked  and  of  little  or  no  value,  the  miner  hews 
a  trench  into  this  and  thus  frees  it  from  the  side  rock,  and 
then  drills  holes  for  blasting  or  wedging  in  the  ore  mass. 
But  if  the  vein  be  firmly  attached  on  both  sides  to  the  rock, 
the  advantage  of  having  the  ore  exposed  on  three  sides  cannot 
be  had  unless  a  trench  be  made  in  the  ore  itself,  which,  how- 
ever, ought  not  to  be  done  if  the  ore  be  pure  or  rich,  nor 
ought  holes  for  blasting  to  be  drilled  into  such  ore.  It  is 
better  to  free  the  ore-mass  by  cutting  a  groove  or  incision,  and 
then  with  pick  or  hammer  and  chisel,  or  a  very  weak  blast, 
the  ore  is  obtained.  Each  method  of  working,  i.  e.,  by  de- 
scending steps  or  reversed  steps,  has  its  advantages  and  disad- 
vantages. 

In  working  by  reversed  steps  the  miner  has  to  work  over- 
head, which  is  inconvenient ;  but  then  the  weight  of  the  rock 
assists  him,  because  it  is  more  easily  detached  from  above 
•downward  than  in  the  reverse  direction.  Moreover,  less  tim- 
ber is  required,  and  the  labor  of  transporting  the  ore  out  of 
the  mine  is  lessened.  Still  there  is  considerable  loss,  because 
some  of  the  ore  will  roll  among  the  rubbish  on  which  the 
miner  has  to  stand. 
19 


290  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

In  the  other  method,  i.  e.,  by  descending  steps,  the  work  is 
easier,  for  the  miner  works  in  a  more  convenient  posture  and 
can  use  water  in  drilling  ;  there  is  also  less  loss  of  ore,  because 
there  is  a  solid  floor  to  stand  upon.  But  then  more  timber  is 
required  ;  the  cost  of  transporting  the  ore  out  of  the  mine  is 
greater,  because  it  has  to  be  hoisted  by  means  of  a  windlass 
up  to  the  main  gallery  ;  and  then  in  mines  where  water 
abounds  it  is  difficult  to  drain  the  workings  properly  so  as 
not  to  inconvenience  the  miners. 

All  things  considered,  the  method  of  working  overhead  or 
by  reversed  steps  is  the  preferable  one,  and  is  the  one  gener- 
ally adopted. 

When  a  vein  or  lode  is  not  uniformly  rich,  when  the  ore  is 
deposited  in  small  detached  masses  or  in  pockets  or  nests,  then 
the  method  of  working  is  as  follows :  By  means  of  short 
tunnels  the  ore  is  sought,  and  when  discovered  it  is  extracted 
by  piercing  shafts  or  wings  which  follow  the  ore  and  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  the  pockets,  and  then  all  that  is  worth 
mining  is  taken  out.  (See  Fig.  39.)  Of  course,  entire  regu- 
larity in  such  workings  is  out  of  the  question,  still  there 
ought  to  be  some  regularity  in  the  direction  of  the  drifts  and 
the  distance  between  them  ;  care  must  also  be  taken  to  secure 
ventilation  and  provide  for  the  safety  of  the  miners. 

Lodes  of  more  than  two  or  three  fathoms'  thickness  are 
worked  by  what  is  called  a  cross-work.  The  lode  is  prepared 
for  working  by  making  gangways  or  drivings  at  A  B,  either 
in  the  hanging  or  lying  wall,  as  in  the  plan,  Fig.  40,  which 
gangways  are  used  for  transporting  the  ore  and  are  heavily 
timbered.  When  these  preparations  are  finished,  cross-cuts  or 
breasts,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  are  marked  off.  These  cross-cuts  are 
made  from  one  to  two  fathoms  in  width  and  one  fathom  in 


FIG.  40. 


PLATE  VII. 
FIG.  39. 


FIG.  41. 


FIG.  42. 


m 


VEINS    AND    LODES.  291 

height,  and  cut  at  right  angles  to  the  gangway  A  B  until  they 
reach  the  opposite  wall,  C.  These  breasts  are  worked  in  such 
a  way  that  beside  each  one  that  is  worked,  1,  2,  3,  or  more 
will  remain.  For  example,  first  the  breasts  1,  3,  and  5  are 
opened,  and  then  2  and  4  ;  or  first  1  and  5,  then  2  and  4,  and 
finally  3,  which  has  remained  as  a  support  for  the  roof.  The 
breast  5  is  then  taken  as  the  first  of  the  next  division,  and 
so  on. 

While  these  breasts  are  worked  they  are  furnished  with 
timber  casings  if  necessary,  the  rubbish  is  put  at  the  side  of 
the  breast,  and  the  ore  taken  out  into  the  gangway  A,  Fig.  41. 

When  a  breast  reaches  the  wall  the  timbers,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  those  on  the  floor,  are  taken  out  and  the  whole  breast 
is  completely  filled  up  with  rubbish.  Where  no  timbers  have 
been  used  during  the  progress  of  cutting  the  breast  the  floor 
must  be  covered  before  it  is  filled  up  and  abandoned,  lest  at 
some  future  time,  when  coming  up  from  a  lower  level,  these 
barren  rocks  endanger  the  workings. 

Before  all  the  breasts  which  open  on  the  level  A,  Fig.  41, 
and  which  together  constitute  one  story,  are  attacked,  steps 
are  taken  to  open  a  second  story,  H,  immediately  over  the 
first,  T.  For  this  purpose  a  gangway,  A' ',  is  made  over  A,  so 
that  the  roof  of  A  shall  be  the  floor  of  A'.  This  is  also  fur- 
nished with  timber  casings,  but  openings  are  left  in  the  floor 
ten  fathoms  apart  through  which  the  ore  is  cast  into  the 
gangway  A.  From  the  gangway  A'  cross-cuts  or  breasts  are 
driven  through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  vein.  After  the 
work  has  advanced  to  a  certain  extent  on  this  story,  a  third 
story  is  opened,  and  then  a  fourth,  and  so  on.  But  it  must  be 
observed  that  two  breasts,  the  one  of  which  is  directly  over 
the  other,  ought  never  to  be  worked  at  the  same  time,  but  the 


292  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

breasts  worked  in  the  upper  stories  must  always  be  over 
breasts  not  yet  cut  out,  or  over  breasts  filled  up  with  barren 
rock.  The  working  of  the  cross-breasts  is  therefore  arranged 
in  such  a  way  that  by  the  side  of  each  one  that  is  actually 
worked  there  shall  be  as  many  left  as  there  are  stories  or  tiers. 
(See  Fig.  42.)  The  work  is  then  prosecuted  after  the  manner 
of  working  by  reversed  steps  described  in  pages  286  and  287. 
Commonly  not  more  than  ten  tiers  or  stories  are  taken  to  con- 
stitute a  working  field  ;  the  eleventh  story  has  its  tunnel  fitted 
up  so  as  to  be  used  as  a  main  or  transporting  gallery. 

When  a  large  mass  of  barren  rock  is  met  in  working  a  de- 
posit at  T,  Fig.  43,  it  is  left  standing  and  the  ore  behind  it  or 
above  or  below  is  obtained  by  mining  around  the  obstacle. 
It  is  sometimes  the  case,  however,  that  what  appears  to  be  a 
barren  mass  may  contain  within  it  a  valuable  ore ;  it  is  not 
well,  therefore,  to  leave  such  a  mass  hastily,  but  rather  pierce 
through  it  at  some  point. 

PREPARATION  AND  WORKING  OF  STRATIFIED  DEPOSITS 
AND  BEDS. 

The  working  of  layers  or  beds  of  great  inclination  corre- 
sponds, in  the  main,  with  that  of  lodes  or  veins.  But  beds 
whose  inclination  is  less  than  40  degrees  are  worked  in  one  of 
two  ways,  by  the  long  wrall  system,  or  post  and  stall  workings. 

The  former  method  is  adapted  to  thin  and  nearly  hori- 
zontal beds,  which  furnish  a  sufficient  amount  of  rubbish. 
This  method  is  really  very  similar  to  that  described  on  pages 
286  and  288,  and  is  conducted  very  much  in  the  same  way, 
only  that  the  workings  which  in  that  case  had  a  perpendicular 
direction  are  carried  on  here  in  a  horizontal  one. 

The  following  is  a  more  detailed  description  of  this  method 


PLATE  VIII. 
FIG.  43. 


FIG.  44. 


FIG.  45. 


FIG.  46. 


FIG.  47. 
_J 


=  c 


To  face  page  1W. 


STRATIFIED    DEPOSITS    AND    BEDS.  293 

of  working.  The  bed  or  deposit  to  be  worked  is  prepared  by 
opening  on  a  certain  level  a  tunnel  A  B,  Figs.  44  to  47. 
This  tunnel  is  made  of  sufficient  height  to  be  used  as  a  trans- 
porting gallery.  If  this  tunnel  is  also  the  lowest  of  the  mine, 
it  is  called  the  ground  level  or  dip  head  level.  The  portion 
of  the  bed  or  layer  above  this  ground  level  is  further  pre- 
pared by  opening  parallel  levels  C  C,  and  diagonal  drifts  D, 
Fig.  44,  or  by  drifts  perpendicular  to  the  ground  level,  as  E  E 
in  Fig.  45..  If  the  inclination  of  the  strata  or  "  vein  "  be  in- 
sufficient to  admit  of  rolling  down  the  material  hewn  out,  and 
at  the  same  time  too  steep  to  admit  of  transportation  with 
carts  or  barrows,  then  the  mine  is  prepared  by  diagonal  drifts 
F  F,  as  in  Fig.  46.  Thus  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  ways 
the  bed  is  divided  into  portions  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  each  of  which  is 
from  25  to  50  fathoms  long  in  the  direction  of  the  strike  or 
bearing,  and  from  10  to  30  fathoms  in  the  direction  of  the  dip. 
The  field  thus  prepared  is  generally  bounded  on  the  upper  side 
by  a  level  G  H,  Figs.  44,  45,  46,  which  is  used  as  the  ground 
level  in  working  the  next  field,  or  which  has  already  been  so 
used.  To  secure  ventilation  the  levels  or  drifts  are  united  by 
crosscuts,  as  at  I  in  Figs.  44  and  45. 

Each  breast  or  working  face  in  its  entire  width  is  occupied 
by  miners  who  work  one  above  the  other  in  such  a  way  that 
the  steps  or  tiers,  Nos.  2,  3,  etc.,  recede  like  stair-steps  with 
reference  to  the  breast  No.  1,  see  Figs.  44  and  45. 

Whilst  the  work  is  thus  going  forward  the  roof  in  the  exca- 
vated space  is  temporarily  supported  by  timbers  until  it  can 
be  more  permanently  filled  up.  Care  must  be  taken  to  leave 
open  and  unobstructed  the  levels  and  diagonal  drift  along 
which  the  mineral  is  transported  to  the  ground  level  A  B  or 
the  shaft  8.  (See  Figs.  44,  45  and  46.) 


294  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

With  the  exception  of  thin  and  slightly  inclined  coal-beds, 
this  method  is  used  only  in  the  cupriferous  slate  strata  of 
Mansfeld. 

The  post  and  stall  method  is  used  in  deposits  and  beds  of 
considerable  thickness  which  do  not  furnish  a  sufficient 
amount  of  rubbish,  and  where  pillars  must  be  left  to  support 
the  roof,  or  where  the  roof  is  allowed  to  crush  down. 

The  preparatory  work  for  this  method  of  mining  is  as  fol- 
lows : — 

At  the  lowest  level  of  the  bed,  a  tunnel  or  ground-level 
A  B,  Figs.  47  and  48,  is  made  which  may  be  two  fathoms  in 
width.  Perpendicular  (i.  e.,  right-angled)  or  diagonal  to  this 
a  drift  C  is  made,  and  crossing  this  at  regular  intervals  of  two 
or  three  fathoms,  levels  D  D  parallel  into  the  ground-level 
A  E.  In  this  manner  the  bed  or  deposit  is  divided  into 
long  strips.  These  are  again  cut  through  at  intervals  of  from 
three  to  six  fathoms  by  drifts  perpendicular  or  right-angled  to 
the  ground  level,  and  thus  the  necessary  arrangements  for 
transportation  and  ventilation  are  made  and  the  rectangular 
(horizontally  long)  or  square  (vertically  short)  pillars.  See 
(P)  Figs.  47  and  48.  The  size  of  these  pillars  depends  upon 
the  nature  of  the  roof  and  the  solidity  of  the  floor. 

The  taking  out  of  the  pillars  begins  when  the  levels,  or 
drifts,  have  reached  the  end  of  the  bed,  or  the  extent  of  the 
field  to  be  worked,  or  exhausted  portions  of  the  mine,  or  in 
general  arrived  at  the  predetermined  limits.  The  beginning 
is  made  at  the  point  farthest  removed  from  the  main  or  work- 
ing shaft  or  gangway,  and  the  work  proceeds  towards  this 
shaft  or  gangway,  so  that  the  roof  may  be  allowed  to  crush  in 
without  interfering  with  transportation  and  ventilation,  and 
the  workings  still  be  carried  on  in  other  portions  of  the  mine. 


FIG.  48. 


PLATE  IX. 


FIG.  49. 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


To  face  page  294. 


STRATIFIED    DEPOSITS    AND    BEDS.  295 

The  separate  pillars  are  taken  one  after  another,  beginning 
with  the  upper  one  and  proceeding  down  in  the  direction  of 
the  dip.  Before  this  is  commenced  and  while  it  is  going  on, 
the  roof  has  to  be  supported  either  by  timbers  or  dry  walls. 
As  soon  as  one  pillar  has  been  taken  away  and  the  materials 
composing  it  removed,  the  timbers  supporting  the  roof  are 
carefully  taken  away,  provided  it  can  be  done  without  danger, 
otherwise  they  are  abandoned  and  the  roof  is  allowed  to  fall. 

If  the  roof  is  very  brittle,  it  is  sometimes  best  to  leave  some 
of  the  pillars  standing,  or  to  build  hollow  pillars  of  rock 
which  are  filled  with  coal  waste,  which,  in  order  to  guard 
them  against  spontaneous  combustion,  are  kept  from  the  draft 
of  air. 

In  coal-beds,  levels  and  drifts  are  cut  most  advantageously 
in  the  following  manner :  The  miner  cuts  with  his  pick  in 
the  most  suitable  place,  generally  as  near  the  floor  as  possible, 
a  shallow  horizontal  groove  S,  Fig.  49,  as  deep  into  the  coal 
as  possible.  The  coal  thus  liberated  is  supported  by  blocks, 
H,  and  props  T.  Then  perpendicular  grooves  are  cut 
through  the  entire  thickness  of  the  bed  and  as  deep  as  the 
groove  S.  In  this  way  blocks  are  formed  which  are  free  on 
four  sides  and  which  may  easily  be  detached. 

In  coal-beds  composed  of  several  different  layers  or 
"  benches  "  of  different  degrees  of  hardness,  the  first  or  hori- 
zontal groove  is  made  in  the  softest  layer,  but  in  beds  of 
greater  thickness  generally  in  the  middle  (Fig.  50),  in  which 
case  the  upper  portion  is  removed  first.  In  beds  of  very 
great  thickness  the  galleries  are  not  cut  through  the  entire 
thickness  at  once,  but  in  successive  layers  or  tiers.  (See 
Fig.  51.) 

If  the  roof  or  walls  need  support,  this  is  supplied  as  the 


296  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

excavation  of  the  level  or  drift  proceeds.  This  support  con- 
sists generally  of  posts  which  are  let  into  the  floor  and  wedged 
firmly  and  perpendicularly  against  the  roof. 

In  coal  mines  spontaneous  combustion  not  infrequently 
occurs,  especially  where  a  part  of  the  roof  is  allowed  to  crush 
in.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  cause  is  to  be  found  in 
the  decomposition  of  pyrites  (iron  sulphide)  contained  in  the 
remaining  coal  and  the  contiguous  clay-slate.  Frequently 
such  combustions  result  in  extensive  conflagrations.  The 
most  effective  mode  of  prevention  of  such  calamities  would  be 
to  fill  up  the  excavated  spaces  completely  before  they  are 
abandoned  and  before  the  roof  is  allowed  to  crush  in.  But, 
inasmuch  as  this  would  involve  too  great  an  expense,  the 
next  best  means  ought  to  be  resorted  to,  which  would  be  to. 
separate  and  shut  off  any  extended  portion  of  the  mine,  that 
has  been  abandoned,  from  that  which  is  still  worked,  by  walls 
of  stone  and  dams  of  clay,  etc.  Only  in  case  of  absolute 
necessity  is  it  allowable  to  inundate  the  workings. 

The  precautionary  rules  are,  not  to  expose  the  coal  to  a 
stronger  current  of  air  than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  pur- 
poses of  ventilation ;  and  not  to  prepare  too  extensive  a  field 
at  one  time  ;  to  leave  pillars  of  sufficient  strength  to  prevent 
a  premature  caving  in  ;  and  to  begin  the  work  of  taking  out 
the  pillars  and  abandoning  the  field  as  soon  as  the  previous 
work  is  completed. 

PREPARATION   AND  WORKING  OF   MINERAL   DEPOSITS   THAT 
OCCUR  IN  LARGE  MASSES. 

In  mining  deposits  of  irregular  form,  and  containing  large 
masses,  the  form  and  extent  of  them,  and  the  nature  of  the 
surrounding  rock,  will  determine  the  method  to  be  pursued. 


MINERAL    DEPOSITS    THAT    OCCUR    IN    LARGE    MASSES.       297 

Large  deposits  which  possess  some  degree  of  regularity  may 
generally  be  mined  by  what  has  already  been  described  as 
the  cross  system  of  mining.  Deposits  with  little  or  no 
regularity  of  form  require  a  peculiar  method.  As  a  general 
rule  the  aim  should  be  to  find  the  extent  of  the  deposit  in 
a  downward  direction  and  then  work  from  below  upwards, 
as  this  will  be  found  easier  and  more  profitable. 

The  manner  of  preparing  such  a  deposit  is  about  as 
follows : — 

When  the  deposit  has  been  discovered  by  means  of  an 
adit  or  tunnel  and  this  tunnel  has  entered  the  ore,  then 
shafts  are  pierced  both  above  and  below,  either  perpendicular 
or  inclined,  and  from  these  shafts,  at  moderate  intervals, 
drifts  are  run  in  the  ore  mass,  as  A  B  C,  Fig.  52.  If  the 
deposit  has  been  discovered  by  a  shaft,  a  cross  gallery  is  run, 
and  from  this  the  work  proceeds  as  above.  Along  these 
drifts  vault-like  chambers  are  formed  by  hewing  away  from 
the  sides,  roof,  and  floor,  which  are  enlarged  as  far  as  the 
solidity  of  the  ore-mass  will  permit.  Between  each  two 
vaults  lying  above  each  other,  ore  of  sufficient  thickness  is 
left  to  serve  as  a  floor  for  the  upper  one,  also  pillars,  and  both 
floors  and  pillars  as  much  as  possible  of  worthless  ore.  The 
pillars  ought  to  be  so  arranged  that  they  will  be  over  each 
other,  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  ore  should  be  left  around 
the  shaft  to  prevent  their  caving  in.  The  floors  are  pierced 
wherever  it  is  necessary  in  order  to  transport  ore  either  up  or 
down. 

The  miners  while  at  work  stand  upon  the  accumulated 
rubbish  or  upon  ladders  or  scaffolds. 

If  one  of  the  vaults  should  become  too  large  and  be  in 
danger  of  crushing  in,  or  if  the  ore-mass  is  composed  of  hang- 


298  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ing  and  lying  ore-veins,  then  it  is  best  to  run  drifts  in  dif- 
ferent directions  which  start  from  the  same  point  or  cross 
each  other.  When  these  drifts  reach  the  limits  of  the  ore, 
new  vaults  are  made.  In  this  manner  there  are  exposed 
irregular  masses  of  inferior  ore  which  may  be  worth  mining, 
but  are  difficult  to  extract  because  surrounded  by  large  spaces. 
In  order  to  gain  all  these  masses  those  between  two  con- 
tiguous drifts  are  divided  in  the  direction  of  the  drifts  into  2, 
3,  4,  etc.,  perpendicular  portions  (see  Fig.  53),  after  which  the 
floors,  pillars,  etc.,  are  taken  out  in  regular  order,  beginning 
with  the  division  at  the  lowest  level  and  leaving  what  is 
worthless  whether  in  the  shape  of  pillar  or  floor.  The  rub- 
bish is  so  placed  that  it  may  support  the  roofs  which  rest 
upon  pillars  that  are  to  be  taken- down.  If  sufficient  rubbish 
for  this  purpose  is  wanting,  pillars  are  made  of  timber  filled 
in  with  rubbish. 

If  in  spite  of  all  precautions  a  part  of  the  mine  should 
crush  in,  the  valuable  ore  contained  in  the  wreck  may  be 
gained  in  the  following  manner ;  The  wreck  is  approached 
by  means  of  drifts  or  galleries  which  are  secured  with  timbers 
as  they  advance.  When  these  galleries  reach  valuable  ore  it 
is  taken  away  from  the  breast  of  the  gallery,  and  as  it  is 
taken  new  materials  are  allowed  to  roll  down  from  above  as 
long  as  they  continue  to  be  valuable.  When  they  cease  to  be 
so,  the  broken  mass  is  approached  from  another  side.  This 
kind  of  work  is  generally  reserved  for  miners  who  wish  to 
work  extra  time  and  are  willing  to  take  what  they  can  make. 

This  method  described  in  the  preceding  paragraphs  finds 
its  application  also  in  rock-salt  works.  In  deposits  which 
contain  salt  in  large  and  almost  pure  masses  galleries  are  cut, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  54.  These  are  brought  into  communication 


PLATE  X. 


FIG.  52. 


FIG.  53. 


FIG.  54. 


To  face  page  298. 


MINERAL    DEPOSITS    THAT    OCCUR    IN    LARGE    MASSES.       299 

with  each  other  and  with  the  main  shaft.  These  tunnels  are 
then  enlarged  by  hewing  away  from  the  sides  and  roofs,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  55.  The  dissolving  power  of  water  is  made 
use  of  in  such  works  with  great  advantage.  The  water  is 
conducted  into  pipes  which  have  a  row  of  fine  holes  along 
their  entire  length,  through  which  the  water  flows  in  fine 
thread-like  streams  against  the  salt.  These  threads  soon  cut 
deep  grooves  in  the  salt  and  large  masses  may  then  be  de- 
tached at  once. 

The  method  of  gaining  the  salt  in  a  mine  by  dissolving  it 
is  almost  entirely  out  of  use.  The  particular  method  of  run- 
ning the  gangways  and  communications  between  them  ver- 
tically and  the  rectangular  branches  conveying  the  water 
toward  the  opening  may  be  understood  sufficiently  by  exam- 
ining Figs.  55  and  56,  one  being  a  vertical  section,  the  other 
a  ground-plan. 

In  solid  rock,  as  for  instance  in  limestone,  quartz  rock  and 
the  like,  it  is  usual  to  have  recourse  to  the  work  of  rock  blast- 
ing, with  drill  and  powder  of  various  kinds.  In  the  salt- 
bearing  slates,  and  material  of  similar  strength,  generally  the 
pick-axe  serves  sufficiently  well,  but  more  recently  and  with 
greater  advantage,  and  perhaps  in  California  with  the  greatest 
possible  advantage,  the  water  stream  is  used,  which  is  de- 
scribed more  fully  on  p.  302,  "Buddling."  In  some  of  the 
salt  mines,  as  stated  by  Niederist,  the  following  method  is 
used  in  progressing  against  a  breast  in  a  gangway :  The  fig- 
ures explain  the  process  sufficiently  where  (Fig.  57)  A  A  is 
the  pipe  conveying  water  from  a  high  level,  and  of  consequent 
high  pressure.  B  is  the  stand-pipe  and  C  C  are  the  nozzles 
from  which  the  water  escapes  and  dashes  with  great  force 
against  the  soil  or  mineral ;  Fig.  58  shows  the  bracing  of  the 
stand-pipe. 


300  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

PREPARATION  AND  WORKING  OF  NESTS,  CORES  OR  POCKETS. 

In  working  small  irregular  deposits,  such  as  nests,  cores  or 
pockets  and  shoots  from  larger  veins,  we  have  to  be  governed 
by  their  size  and  form.  The  smaller  and  the  more  irregular 
they  are,  the  more  necessary  it  is  to  follow  closely  the  direc- 
tion of  the  ore  and  not  attempt  to  do  much  in  the  way  of 
prospecting.  If  they  assume  the  form  of  veins  or  beds  or 
larger  masses,  they  are  worked  in  accordance  with  the  con- 
ditions. 

In  working  cores  or  threads  the  sides  of  the  tunnel  should 
be  as  clean  and  smooth  as  possible,  because  these  cores  fre- 
quently send  out  branches  which  may  lead  to  the  discovery 
of  other  deposits,  if  scrutinized  carefully  when  free  from  rock 
and  other  misleading  substances. 

SURFACE  OR  DAY-WORKING. 

Surface  or  day-working  is  that  where  the  deposits  to  be 
worked  occur  at  a  moderate  depth  below  the  surface,  and 
which  admit  of  the  covering  mass  being  removed.  To  this 
class  belong  deposits  of  peat  or  turf,  bog  iron  ore,  rock-salt,  flat 
coal-beds,  and  even  deposits  of  ore.  The  work  includes  strip- 
ping, quarrying,  and  huddling. 

The  work  of  stripping  consists  in  removing  the  surface  soil 
and  thus  exposing  the  deposit.  The  mass  to  be  taken  away 
must  be  removed  to  one  side,  or  at  any  rate  to  a  place  where 
it  will  not  impede  the  subsequent  work,-  and  where  at  the 
same  time  it  will  be  convenient  to  fill  up  excavated  spaces  if  it 
should  be  needed  for  that  purpose.  When  this  is  done,  a  cut 
is  made  to  the  bottom  of  the  deposit,  or  at  an}'  rate  to  a  con- 
siderable depth  where  a  ditch  is  made  to  convey  away  the 


PLATE  XI. 


FIG.  55. 


FIG.  56. 


FIG.  57. 


FIG.  58. 


FIG.  59. 


To  face  page  300. 


SURFACE    OR    DAY-WORKING. 

water,  or  a  cistern  to  collect  the  same.     Then 
carried  on  by  descending  steps.     At  the  same 
be  taken  that  the  breast,  or  the  wall,  does  not  cave  in  and  en- 
danger the  workmen. 

In  open  quarrying  there  may  be  gained  not  only  building 
stones,  mill-stones,  and  the  like,  but  also  valuable  minerals,  as 
rock-salt,  iron  ore,  etc. 

The  mass  to  be  mined  may  be  loose  or  solid.  In  the 
former  case  it  is  best  to  arrange  and  prosecute  the  working  by 
steps  or  cuts,  1,  2,  3,  etc.,  Fig.  59,  and  to  roll  down  the  mater- 
ial gained  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  steps,  and  to  facilitate 
this  an  inclined  plane  is  made  in  the  middle  of  the  quarry  by 
cutting  away  the  corners  of  the  steps ;  this  incline  ought  to  be 
about  45°. 

If  solid  rock  is  to  be  quarried,  then  the  method  will  depend 
upon  the  size  and  form  which  the  pieces  ought  to  have. 
Large  regular  building-stones  and  mill-stones  are  gained  by 
cutting  grooves  and  driving  in  wedges  along  the  line  of  the 
groove,  and  also  by  blasting.  Smaller,  irregular  pieces  are 
obtained  by  blasting,  and  most  easily  by  adopting  the  method 
of  descending  steps.  In  various  mines  or  quarries,  as  in 
Middletown,  Connecticut,  large  blocks  are  easily  opened  in 
almost  any  direction  by  driving  perfectly  dry  pins  into  the 
holes  prepared  during  the  day  along  the  line  of  the  desired 
opening,  and  just  before  the  workmen  are  dismissed  water  is 
poured  in  the  groove.  The  swelling  of  the  wood,  by  morning, 
opens  a  seam,  and  the  removal  of  the  block  is  easily  effected. 
In  case  the  holes  were  not  deep  enough  and  the  pins  or 
wedges  are  not  long  enough,  alternate  holes  are  made  and  the 
trial  repeated  the  next  night.  The  miner  must  learn  this 
process  and  judge  of  its  special  efficiency  by  the  nature  of  the 


302  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

rock ;  generally  in  sand-rock  holes  six  and  eight  inches  deep, 
one  and  a  quarter  inch  diameter,  are  quite  sufficient,  at  an  in- 
terval for  each  hole  of  eight  or  nine  inches.  In  some  brittle 
and  soft  rocks  these  measurements  are  greater  than  necessary. 

When  a  quarry  is  first  opened  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
covering  mass  to  a  place  where  it  will  not  be  in  the  way.  It 
is  also  necessary  to  provide  a  suitable  road,  so  that  the  teams 
can  drive  up  to  the  workings  and  prevent  unnecessary  haul- 
ing, or  moving  of  the  quarried  mass. 

To  avoid  the  removal  of  a  very  thick  covering,  and  to  be 
able  to  work  during  winter,  or  in  case  the  quarry  is  difficult 
of  access,  it  is  sometimes  well  to  work  it  under  ground  with 
tunnels.  Where  the  covering,  however,  extends  a  great  dis- 
tance, as  at  the  iron  mines  near  Hokendauqua,  Pennsylvania, 
and  other  places  in  that  region,  the  tunnels  must  be  driven 
from  shafts.  In  this  plan  the  enormous  deposits  of  water  in 
the  workings  would  be  avoided,  but  where  wood  is  dear  and 
difficult  to  be  had,  the  necessary  timbering  must  be  considered 
as  an  objection.  The  cost  of  hoisting  engines,  fuel,  etc.,  would 
be  about  the  same  in  either  case. 

Buddling  is  the  method  of  gaining  useful  minerals  by 
means  of  water  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  minerals. 
There  is  a  great  variety  of  methods  more  or  less  complicated. 
One  of  the  simplest  methods  is  that  employed  in  steep  moun- 
tain valleys,  where  a  ditch  is  dug,  beginning  at  the  lowest 
point  and  casting  the  mass  to  be  washed  in  at  the  top  and 
causing  water  to  wash  it  down.  In  this  way  the  coarse  and 
worthless  particles  will  be  found  on  top,  lower  down  the  finer 
sand,  and  the  finest  with  the  valuable  mineral  at  the  bottom. 
The  worthless  is  cast  away,  the  next  grade  is  crushed,  if 
necessary,  and  with  the  finest  is  washed  again  in  suitable 
apparatus. 


SURFACE    OR    DAY-WORKING.  303 

Instead  of  ditches,  various  mechanical  contrivances  are 
used,  such  as  the  washboard,  which  is  especially  adapted  for 
minerals  found  in  coarse  grains,  as  gold.  It  is  three  or  four 
feet  in  length  and  has  shallow  grooves  running  crosswise, 
and  is  at  the  sides  supplied  with  a  rim.  This  washboard  is 
placed  in  a  ditch  having  a  slight  inclination ;  the  earth  to  be 
washed  is  put  into  the  ditch  above,  and,  with  contstant  stir- 
ring, is  washed  first  on  the  board  and  then  over  the  same. 
When  a  certain  amount  has  been  washed,  the  board  is  lifted 
out ;  and  the  sand  collected  in  the  grooves  is  emptied  into  a 
vessel  and  the  metal  is  separated.  Several  such  boards  are 
generally  placed  at  distances  of  one  or  two  fathoms  apart,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  ditch  a  dam  is  erected  to  intercept  the  sand 
so  that  it  can  be  washed  again. 

If  the  mineral  particles  are  very  fine,  the  muddy  water  is 
conveyed  over  a  series  of  sieves,  and  thus  the  coarser  particles 
are  separated  from  the  fine. 

Where  a  sufficient  head  of  water  can  be  obtained  and  the 
soil  to  be  washed  is  loose,  it  is  advantageous  to  convey  the 
water  directly  to  the  mass  by  means  of  hose  and  discharge 
it  through  a  1J  inch  nozzle  upon  the  earth,  so  as  to  under- 
mine a  portion  of  it  and  cause  it  to  crumble  in.  This  is 
then  still  further  separated  and  dissolved  by  the  stream  and 
washed  into  and  through  ditches  200  or  300  feet  long,  having 
considerable  inclination  thereto ;  these  are  furnished  with 
grooves  in  which  the  metallic  particles  are  collected.  Instead 
of  ditches,  troughs  made  of  boards  are  sometimes  used,  and 
these  are  furnished  with  cross  pieces  on  the  bottom  instead  of 
grooves. 


304  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND  MINING. 

ASSORTING  THE  ORE  IN  THE  MINE. 

The  useful  ore  must  be  separated  from  the  worthless  rock 
in  which  it  is  generally  contained.  The  beginning  of  this 
work  is  made  in  the  mine  itself,  partly  to  obtain  rubbish  with 
which  to  fill  up  and  partly  to  save  transporting  useless 
material.  This  assorting  in  the  mine  cannot  be  very  close  or 
minute,  but  aims  only  to  separate  the  larger  pieces  which  are 
entirely  worthless  from  those  which  contain  ore. 

The  miner  looks  carefully  at  the  mass  obtained  by  a  blast, 
breaks  the  larger  pieces,  and  throws  the  worthless  to  one  side. 
The  rest  is  taken  away  and  more  narrowly  examined,  and 
assorted  first  as  to  the  size  of  the  pieces,  then  the  larger  pieces 
are  separated  into  richer  and  poorer. 

If  very  rich  ores  of  valuable  minerals  are  discovered  in  the 
mine,  they  are  carefully  separated  and  put  in  sacks  or  baskets 
and  carried  out  of  the  mine  immediately.  In  precious 
minerals  even  apparently  useless  ores  are  saved,  because  even 
a  very  low  per  cent,  of  gold,  or  silver,  will  pay  the  cost  of 
mining  and  smelting. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

This  whole  subject  may  be  conveniently  and  appropriately 
classified  under  the  heads  : — 

1st.  Transportation  in  galleries  and  drifts  either  level  or 
with  an  inclination  not  exceeding  10°. 

2d.  Transportation  through  galleries  and  drifts  having  an 
inclination  of  more  than  10°  and  less  than  30°. 

3d.  Transportation  through  shafts  either  perpendicular  or 
inclined. 

General  Rules. — 1st.  Choose  the  shortest  way  and  simplest 
method. 


TRANSPORTATION.  305 

2d.  Avoid  as  much  as  possible  repeated  loading  and  un- 
loading, or  broken  transportation. 

3d.  Wherever  convenient  use  machinery. 

4th.  Be  not  afraid  of  expense  in  securing  the  best  means 
and  method  of  transportation. 

5th.  Do  not  hastily  or  frequently  change  the  transportation 
from  one  drift  or  level  to  another  in  the  hope  of  saving  dis- 
tance. 

Transportation  through  galleries  and  drifts  having  an  inclination 
of  more  than  10°  and  less  than  30°. 

When  ore,  or  coal,  is  to  be  transported  from  a  higher  to  a 
lower  point  over  an  inclined  plane,  one  method  usually 
adopted  is  that  represented  in  Fig.  60  (called  a  jigger  break). 
It  consists  of  a  winch  or  whim,  placed  at  the  point  from  which 
the  ore  is  to  be  transported  to  a  lower  gallery  or  level  A. 
Along  this  incline  double  wooden  rails  are  laid.  R  is  an 
axle-tree  around  which  a  rope  or  chain  is  wound  several 
times ;  at  the  upper  end  of  this  the  loaded  wagon  V  is  fast- 
ened, and  at  the  lower  the  empty  one  L.  When  the  loaded 
wagon  descends  it  draws  up  the  empty  one.  Now  to  prevent 
a  too  rapid  descent  a  wooden  wheel,  S,  is  attached  to  the  axle- 
tree,  and  this  again  is  provided  with  a  brake,  J?,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  60. 

When  ore  is  to  be  transported  from  an  intermediate  drift, 
Aj  Fig.  61,  the  wagon  may  be  attached  to  the  chain,  as  there 
shown,  provided  the  inclination  is  not  too  great.  On  steeper 
inclines  the  wagon  is  placed  on  a  platform,  G,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  62.  The  object  is  to  prevent  the  ore  from  falling  out  of 
the  loaded  wagon  during  the  descent. 
20 


306  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

Transportation  through  Shafts. 

The  method  of  shaft  transportation  depends  upon  the 
nature  of  the  shaft,  whether  it  be  perpendicular  or  inclined. 
The  machines  used  are  adapted  to  the  power  employed.  The 
windlass  is  worked  by  muscular  power,  the  wrater-wheel  and 
turbine  by  water-power,  the  steam-engine  by  steam-power. 

An  essential  requisite  for  shaft  transportation  is  found  in 
ropes.  Two  kinds  are  used,  hemp  and  wire.  The  former  are 
made  of  hemp  or  manilla  fibre,  the  latter  of  wire,  and  both 
either  round  or  flat.  Chains,  on  account  of  their  great 
weight,  are  not  much  used.  Round  ropes  are  wound  about 
cylindrical  or  conical  drums ;  the  flat  ropes  or  bands  are 
wound  between  disks  (see  Fig.  63),  composed  of  two  flanges, 
R  R,  with  intermediate  space,  S  S,  for  the  band  or  flat  rope. 

The  shortest  and  most  natural  method  of  transporting  min- 
erals, etc.,  from  a  higher  to  a  lower  plane  is  through  shutes ; 
these,  however,  must  have  such  an  inclination  that  the  trans- 
portable material  may  not  be  arrested  or  "  hang "  in  its 
course ;  therefore,  they  should  not  be  curved,  irregularly,  ver- 
tically or  laterally. 

If  the  shutes  are  lined  with  timber,  then  the  boards  should 
be  arranged  longitudinally,  that  is,  parallel  with  the  course, 
and  securely  nailed. 

In  the  lower  plane  the  shute  terminates  with  or  without 
a  sliding  gate.  If  no  sliding  gate  be  provided,  a  recess  about 
six  feet  in  depth  should  be  made  (see  A,  Fig.  64),  which 
should  be  furnished  with  a  door  or  closed  by  strong  posts,  S, 
in  order  that  material  shall  not  fall  into  the  gangway  and 
interrupt  transportation.  If  the  shute  is  provided  with  a 
sliding  gate,  Fig.  65,  A  B,  the  surrounding  frame  should  be 
closed  up  with  strong  timbers,  and  only  the  opening  left  for 


PLATE  XII. 


FIG.  60. 


FIG.  61. 


FIG.  63. 


FIG.  62. 


To  face  page  306. 


TRANSPORTATION.  307 

the  sliding  gate  through  which  the  transportable  material 
falls  into  a  car  placed  below  or  is  raked  in.  In  order  that 
the  timbering  may  not  be  injured  by  the  material  rolling 
against  it,  the  shute  should  never  be  entirely  empty,  but  filled 
up  to  the  height  of  about  twelve  feet. 

The  windlass  is  efficient  in  transporting  material  from  a 
lower  to  a  higher  level  for  a  distance  of  twenty  fathoms  (120 
feet),  Fig.  66.  The  windlass  consists  of  a  framework  and 
drum  or  cylinder.  To  the  frame  belong  the  floor  frame  B  B 
G  G  and  the  posts  or  uprights  T  T  supported  by  the  braces 
8  S.  Into  the  uprights  the  cylinder  is  let  by  axles,  and 
around  the  cylinder  is  wound  a  rope  with  the  transported 
weight  or  bucket  at  the  end.  The  revolution  of  the  cylinder 
is  caused  by  the  cranks,  which  form  the  continuation  of  the 
axles,  which  turn  in  iron-lined  journals  let  or  "  scored  "  into 
the  upright  (see  Fig.  67),  or  nailed  on  to  the  upright  (see  Fig. 
68).  The  windlass  for  moderate  depths  is  generally  worked 
by  two  men,  and  for  greater  depths  three  and  sometimes  four 
men.  According  as  the  windlass  is  worked  backward  or  for- 
ward, one  or  the  other  vessel  descends. 

Where  a  windlass  is  to  be  erected,  a  wider  space  is  to  be 
excavated.  (Fig.  69.)  In  perpendicular  shafts  the  uprights 
of  the  windlass  are  perpendicular  to  the  frame,  and  to  make 
them  more  secure  they  are  extended  and  let  into  the  roof. 
(Fig.  69.)  In  inclined  shafts  the  uprights  are  set  at  right 
angles  or  nearly  so  to  the  inclination  of  the  shaft,  mortising 
them  into  the  frame,  and  letting  them  into  the  roof.  (Fig. 
70.)  The  journals  are  fixed  at  two-thirds  of  a  man's  height, 
or  about  three  and  a  half  feet  above  the  floor,  taking  care  that 
they  be  upon  the  same  level.  The  cylinder  should  be  at  least 
nine  inches  in  diameter,  and  may  be  made  of  pine,  because  of 


308  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

its  lightness  as  well  as  of  its  strength,  care  being  taken  to 
obtain  heart  timber  and  sound. 

If  a  greater  weight  is  to  be  raised,  and  from  a  greater 
depth  than  usual,  a  larger  and  stronger  cylinder  is  used, 
geared  in  with  cog-wheels,  the  larger  wheel  being  upon  the 
main  cylinder  and  the  small  cog-wheel  upon  a  separate  shaft, 
or  rod,  with  the  crank  attached.  The  cranks  should  not  be 
at  right  angles,  but  directly  opposite  each  other,  so  that  when 
one  is  down  the  other  shall  be  up ;  and  in  order  that  they 
shall  not  chafe  the  hands  of  the  workmen,  they  should  be 
furnished  with  cases,  or  shells,  on  which  the  permanent 
handle  turns. 

The  hemp  ropes  are  generally  tarred  to  make  them  more 
durable.  In  mines  where  the  water  is  not  acid,  chains  with 
twisted  links  may  be  used  to  greater  advantage  than  wire 
ropes.  The  ropes  must,  however,  be  three  or  four  fathoms 
longer  than  the  depth  of  the  shaft,  to  furnish  friction  enough 
by  sufficient  coiling  upon  the  cylinder. 

In  perpendicular  shafts  round  buckets  are  preferred,  in 
inclined  shafts  square  vessels  with  or  without  wheels.  In  the 
former  they  are  freely  suspended,  in  the  latter  they  slide  or 
roll  upon  rails  or  guides.  In  curved  shafts  the  rope,  or  chain, 
must  be  guided  by  rollers,  or  pulleys  placed  at  the  parts  of 
altered  direction. 

To  prevent  the  falling  of  material  into  the  shaft,  the  frame- 
work at  the  foundation  is  covered  with  flooring,  into  which  a 
trap-door,  to  allow  transportation,  is  opened. 

When  the  depth  of  the  shaft  amounts  to  more  than  twenty 
fathoms  (one  hundred  and  twenty  feet),  the  windlass  must 
give  place  to  more  effective  machines.  The  more  common 
are  horse- whims,  water-wheels,  and  turbine  and  steam-engines. 


PLATE  XIII. 


FIG.  65. 


FIG.  66. 


FIG.  67. 


FIG.  68. 


FIG.  69. 


PLATE  XIV. 


FIG.  70. 


FIG.  71. 


FIG.  72. 


w 


TRANSPORTATION.  309 

The  horse-whim,  Fig.  72,  consists  of  an  upright  cylinder  post 
W,  with  drum  K,  and  draft-beams  1 1.  The  cylinder  is  made 
of  hard  wood,  and  revolves  upon  two  iron  axles,  turning  on 
cast-iron  centres,  of  which  the  upper  one  is  fastened  into  a 
wooden  collar  beam  B  J5,  and  the  lower  one  turns  in  a  stone 
block  G.  Around  the  drum  two  ropes  are  wound  in  opposite 
directions,  which,  during  the  revolution  of  the  cylinders,  run 
over  pulley-wheels,  Fig.  73,  into  the  shaft.  The  manner  of 
putting  together  a  drum  for  such  a  horse-whim  may  be  readily 
understood  by  examining  the  following,  Fig.  74,  the  spurs 
being  preferable  to  a  smooth  periphery  as  allowing  greater 
hold  or  friction.  At  the  ends  of  the  ropes  buckets  are  hung. 
When  the  full  bucket  ascends  the  empty  one  descends.  As 
the  rope  of  the  descending  bucket  gradually  becomes  longer 
and  heavier,  that  of  the  ascending  bucket  becomes  shorter  and 
lighter  ;  in  this  manner  the  descending  bucket  gradually  gains 
in  weight  and  velocity.  To  equalize  this  the  drum  receives,  in- 
stead of  a  cylindrical,  a  double  conical  form,  and  is  composed 
of  two  frustums  of  cones  joined  at  either  the  larger  or  smaller 
ends,  Figs.  75  and  76.  The  latter  is  especially  used  in  the 
horse-whims.  The  former  method  finds  its  application  chiefly 
in  the  water-whims,  and  both  are  known  under  the  name  of 
spiral  buckets,  and  they  are  generally  furnished  with  brakes. 
When  such  a  whim  is  in  operation,  the  rope  of  the  ascending 
full  bucket  winds  itself  in  the  direction  of  the  greater  diameter 
of  the  shaft,  that  is,  the  leverage  of  the  load  increases ;  whilst 
on  the  other  hand  the  rope  of  the  descending  empty  bucket 
winds  itself  about  the  basket  in  the  direction  of  the  small 
diameter,  and  thus  the  leverage  decreases,  so  that  the  power 
and  weight  tend  to  equalize  each  other. 

To  the  draft  beams  horses  or  other  animals  are  hitched,  and 


310  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

they  move  in  a  circle,  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left,  accord- 
ing to  the  desired  movements  of  the  buckets. 

It  is  well  to  remember  that,  in  using  buckets,  it  sometimes 
is  a  great  convenience  to  have  properly  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  bucket  a  square  opening,  fastened  by  a  strong  hinge  on 
the  one  side  and  by  a  small  movable  bar  of  metal  on  the  other, 
both  on  the  outside,  so  that  the  contents  of  the  bucket  may 
readily  be  discharged  upon  the  ground  without  turning  or 
tilting  the  bucket  over,  a  work  sometimes  attended  with  great 
effort. 

To  prevent  a  loaded  car  from  "  jumping  the  track,"  or  part- 
ing from  its  proper  course,  not  only  double  rails  may  be  used, 
but  one  single  elevation  in  the  midway  of  the  track  may  be 
found  both  cheaper  and  more  efficient,  as  represented  in  Fig. 
71,  wherein  the  car  is  supposed  to  be  lifted  up  at  the  nearest 
end  to  show  both  axles. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  water-whim  are  a  double  water- 
wheel  R,  Fig.  75,  constructed  with  a  brake  attachment,  and 
the  horizontal  rope  basket  K.  The  water-wheel  may  have  a 
diameter  of  from  three  to  thirty-six  feet,  and  differs  in  its  con- 
struction from  an  ordinary  overshot  water-wheel  only  in  this, 
that  the  periphery  of  the  wheel  is  divided  into  two  sections 
H  H,  having  the  water  buckets  in  reversed  directions,  with  an 
intervening  division  or  partition  so  placed  that  a  double  wheel 
is  formed,  which  may  be  turned  in  opposite  directions  accord- 
ing as  the  water  is  let  into  one  side  or  the  other  of  the  wheel. 
The  advantage  of  the  conical  basket  is  the  same  as  in  the 
horse-whims. 

The  brake  attachment  consists  either  of  a  separate  wheel  B, 
Fig.  75,  or  the  middle  of  the  water-wheel  is  raised  an  inch 
and  a  half  over  the  two  sides  and  the  brake  attached  to  G. 


FIG.  73. 


FIG.  75. 


FIG.  76. 


PLATE  XV. 

FIG.  74. 


PLATE  XVI. 


FIG.  77. 


TRANSPORTATION.  311 

A  very  simple  brake  consists  of  a  brake-frame  T  T,  Fig.  77, 
the  rods  B  B,  the  draft- rods  Z  Z,  and  the  brake-lever  H.  When 
the  lever  is  depressed  the  rods  B  B  are  pressed  against  the 
wheel,  and  by  means  of  the  shoes  S  S  the  desired  friction  is 
produced.  This  may  also  be  accomplished  by  turning  the 
water  into  the  opposite  side  of  the  water-wheel. 

Since  the  weight  decreases  as  the  bucket  ascends,  the  head 
of  water  is  decreased,  and  when  the  bucket  has  nearly  reached 
the  surface  the  water  is  cut  off  altogether,  in  order  to  stop  the 
wheel.  This,  however,  can  only  be  fully  accomplished  by 
means  of  the  brakes,  for  the  weight  of  the  water  in  the  wheel- 
buckets  and  the  momentum  of  the  wheel  tend  to  continue  the 
motion. 

Another  method  is  as  follows :  The  descending  bucket  is 
filled  with  water,  which  by  its  weight  draws  up  the  bucket 
filled  with  ore  and  other  material.  In  this  case  the  shaft  is 
furnished  with  either  a  horizontal  drum  for  round  ropes  or 
two  disks  S  S,  Fig.  78,  for  band  or  flat  ropes  and  a  brake  B. 
The  flat  ropes  run  over  pulleys  or  rollers  R  Rf  into  the  shaft. 
Where  conical  baskets  are  used  these  pulleys  or  rollers  are 
movable  along  their  axles,  in  order  to  follow  the  lateral  move- 
ment of  the  rope  from  side  to  side.  The  brake- wheel  is  situ- 
ated upon  the  same  cylinder  S  S,  and  has  on  its  sides  pins 
Z  Z,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  or  lowering  the  bucket  to  be 
emptied. 

The  water  is  let  into  the  bucket  from  an  elevated  reservoir 
through  a  pipe,  which  has  a  delivery  arm  and  hose  and  stop- 
cock T,  and  is  retained  in  the  bucket  by  a  valve  in  the  bottom. 

Since  the  mine  material  is  heavier  than  the  water,  both 
buckets  must  not  be  equally  filled,  but  one  must  have  pro- 
portionably  less  weight.  For  this  purpose  the  buckets  have 


312  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

false  bottoms,  so  made  that  they  do  not  permit  the  water  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  solid  contents,  but  to  enter  the 
space  below,  which,  when  it  is  desired,  may  be  filled  with 
water.  In  order  to  empty  the  bucket  when  it  reaches  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft,  a  valve  is  set  in  the  bucket  for  the  release 
of  the  water.  This  method  of  lifting  is  of  value  only  when 
the  water  can  be  led  out  of  the  shaft  by  tunnel  or  otherwise. 
Instead  of  filling  the  descending  bucket  with  water  it  may 
also  be  filled  with  rocks,  provided  they  are  required  for  filling 
or  other  uses  in  the  mine,  as  suggested  under  "Timbering 
and  Masonry,"  p.  319. 

-  It  is  of  importance  to  put  the  whim  as  high  over  the  low- 
est adit  level  A  B,  Fig.  79,  as  the  distance  C  D  is  below  the 
same,  so  that  both  buckets  may  be  at  the  place  of  loading 
and  unloading  at  the  same  time. 

Where  there  is  a  small  amount  of  water  with  sufficient 
head,  turbine  wheels  may  be  used.  They  present  the  appear- 
ance of  horizontal  wheels  (with  perpendicular  axes),  upon 
which  the  water  acts  by  thrust  and  weight  combined,  being 
caught  by  the  curvature  on  one  side  of  a  series  of  blades, 
which  are  concave  to  the  approaching  water,  but  convex  on 
the  opposite  side  to  the  same  body  of  water. 

The  general  form  and  curvature  of  the  blades  may  be  seen 
in  Fig.  80,  which  represents  a  horizontal  section.  The  double 
form  of  the  wheel  will  be  noticed,  the  outside  ring-wheel 
being  made  stationary  and  the  inside  fastened  to  the  shaft,  as 
we  shall  further  explain,  in  Fig.  81. 

In  Fig.  81  may  be  seen  a  method  of  placing  the  wheel  and 
shaft.  Here  W  is  the  shaft,  the  wheel,  Fig.  80,  being  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  shaft  and  its  plane  at  right  angles  to  the 
length  of  the  shaft  W.  At  the  top  of  the  shaft  is  the  small 


FIG.  79. 


PLATE  XVII. 


FIG.  80. 


FIG.  81. 


FIG.  82. 


TRANSPORTATION.  313 

cog-wheel  X  gearing  into  R,  which  runs  the  machinery.  On 
the  left  hand  is  the  main  delivery  pipe,  A,  the  box  receiving 
the  water,  which  turns  the  submerged  wheel  placed  between 
the  beams  S  S.  At  this  point  it  is  necessary  to  understand 
that  this  form  of  the  turbine  requires  that  firmly  placed  be- 
tween S  S  is  the  outer  ring  of  the  wheel,  Fig.  80.  The  water 
descending  would  naturally  push  this  outer  ring  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  arrow,  but  being  immovable  the  effect  is  to  move 
toward  the  opposite  direction  the  inner  wheel  attached  to 
the  shaft  W.  Sufficient  room,  or  headway,  is  given  for  the 
water  to  escape  from  under  $  S.  It  is  plain  that  the  greater 
the  pressure  of  the  water  in  A  the  greater  will  be  the  force 
exerted  upon  the  curved  blades  of  the  turbine.  These 
principles  will  be  further  treated  of  in  the  examination  of 
special  cases. 

If  water  power  cannot  be  obtained  at  all,  or  only  at  too 
great  cost,  and  if  fuel  be  available  and  cheap,  it  is  better  to 
use  steam  power  for  transportation  and  other  work.  The 
effectiveness  depends  upon  the  expansiveness  of  steam,  and 
the  general  principles  upon  which  all  steam-engines  move 
may  be  learned  by  examination  of  Fig.  82,  with  the  explana- 
tions we  proceed  to  give. 

C  C  is  the  cylinder,  which  is  the  chief  and  head  place  of 
active  power  in  the  engine.  In  the  cylinder  is  the  piston 
head  K  attached  to  the  piston  rod  L  L,  which  is  connected 
with  the  connecting  rod  M  M  and  moving  with  the  motion  of 
the  crank  E  upon  a  joint  at  P  in  what  is  ordinarily  called 
the  cross  head  guided  on  either  end  by  the  guide  or  guide-rods. 
A  is  the  fly-wheel,  whose  momentum  carries  the  connecting 
rod  around  the  dead  centres ;  the  crank  E  is  now  between  the 
dead  centres  and  in  the  upper  semicircle.  II  is  a  wheel  "  cog- 


314  MINERALS,  MINES    AND    MINING. 

ging  in "  to  the  larger  wheel  D  E,  which  thus  carries  the 
machinery.  Now  it  is  plain  that  steam  entering  with  suffi- 
cient pressure  behind  K  into  C  C  will  press  K  toward  the 
crank,  and,  contrariwise,  if  the  steam  was  let  in  on  the  oppo- 
site side  it  would  return  the  piston-head  K,  and  thus  the 
engine-shaft  would  turn.  This  oscillation,  however,  is  the 
result  of  a  constant  pressure  of  steam  entering  at  S,  and  at 
that  point  always  in  one  direction,  and  the  alternation  is 
brought  about  by  means  of  a  sliding  valve  X  in  the  steam- 
chest  Z  Z,  so  placed,  as  may  be  seen  in  Fig.  82,  that  only  one 
hole,  called  "port"  opens  the  steam  into  the  cylinder  at  one 
time.  In  the  figure  the  right  hand  hole  is  now  open,  and  the 
steam  is  running  into  the  port  0;  at  the  same  time  the  left 
hand  lip  or  projection  of  the  slide-valve  has  covered  the  left 
hand  port,  and,  no  steam  entering  there,  the  pressure  is  alto- 
gether delivered  on  one  side  of  K.  But  there  must  be  some 
relief  from  the  resistance  of  the  steam  already  in  the  front 
part  of  the  cylinder  at  L  L.  This  is  obtained  through  the 
cavity  in  the  bottom  of  the  sliding  valve  X,  which  allows  the 
steam,  now  useless,  and  called  the  "  exhaust-steam,"  to  pass  out 
of  the  same  port  through  which  the  "  live  "  steam  just  before 
passed  in,  until  the  valve  slid  over  the  "  port,"  so  far  as  to 
allow  the  cavity  in  its  bottom  to  pass  the  exhaust-steam  to  I7, 
when  it  escapes  into  the  open  air  with  the  noise  which  all 
non-condensing  engines  make.  After  this  front  movement,  it 
is  plain  that  a  back  movement  of  the  slide-valve  would  be  at- 
tended by  an  uncovering  of  the  front  (upper)  port,  the  passage 
of  the  steam  into  the  (lower)  front  port  0'  and  the  consequent 
reverse  movement  of  the  piston-head  K,  the  steam  escaping 
from  behind  the  piston-head  as  before  it  escaped  from  before 
the  front.  It  now  remains  to  show  how  this  alternative  be- 


TRANSPORTATION.  315 

comes  automatic.  As  it  would  not  answer  to  make  the  move- 
ment of  the  slide-valve  greater  than  an  inch  or  two,  it  would 
not  do  to  connect  the  rod  G  G  with  the  crank  of  the  engine, 
hence  a  contrivance  called  the  "  eccentric  "  or  eccentric  wheel 
F,  is  brought  into  use.  This  is  a  wheel,  or  circular  disk,  or 
plate,  placed  on  the  shaft,  but  not  so  that  the  two  centres  of 
the  shaft  and  eccentric  coincide,  but  the  latter  is  out  of  centre, 
and  hence  the  name.  Around  the  periphery  of  this  eccentric 
is  a  groove  to  hold  the  circle  end  of  the  slide-valve  rod.  It  is 
plain  that  just  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  displacement, 
or  eccentricity,  of  the  eccentric  will  be  the  amount  of  draw  or 
thrust  of  the  eccentric  rod,  and  if  the  centre  of  the  shaft  and 
the  centre  of  the  eccentric  wheel,  or  plate,  differ  by  one  inch, 
then  the  amount  of  movement  of  the  rod  will  be  twice  the 
amount  of  departure  of  centres,  or  two  inches.  In  this  way 
the  eccentric  rod  may  be  made  to  move  from  the  smallest 
movement  to  as  great  as  the  size  of  the  eccentric  will  permit, 
remembering  that,  when  fitted  properly,  the  eccentric  should 
never  have  its  centre  cut  out  so  near  its  circumference  as  too 
much  to  weaken  the  edge  nearest  to  which  the  hole  is  cut 
out.  The  eccentric  can  move  around  the  shaft  and  be  ac- 
commodated to  any  desired  position  of  the  sliding-valve ;  after 
that  is  determined,  the  wheel  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  "  key  " 
cut  half  way  in  the  shaft  and  half  in  the  eccentric  wheel.  In 
all  engines  much  efficiency  depends  upon  placing  the  slide- 
valve  in  nice  adjustment,  that  is,  not  too  far  over  one  port 
and  too  little  over  the  other.  Eccentrics  should  move  but 
little,  hence  it  is  generally  preferable  to  cut  the  ports  not 
round,  nor  square,  but  in  a  retangular  form,  so  that  the  slide- 
valve  may  open  a  long  opening,  thus  letting  in  a  larger 
quantity  of  steam  by  the  same  draw  or  move  of  the  eccentric 


316  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

rod.  It  is  very  plain  that  an  eccentric  may  be  so  large  as 
seriously  to  detract  from  the  power  of  the  engine — hence,  in 
some  engines,  locomotives  especially,  the  ports  are  very 
narrow.  The  pressure  of  steam  upon  the  valve  of  an  engine 
is  in  some  cases  very  great,  and  although  the  power  lost  or 
expended  upon  mere  movement  of  the  valve  may  be  slight, 
the  difficulty  in  managing  the  starting-rod  or  lever,  in  some 
engines,  is  inconvenient  from  this  source  and  the  consequent 
wear  upon  the  valves  great.  Conical  valves  have  been  in- 
vented, as  in  the  Corliss  engine,  and  rollers  under  the  slide- 
valve  have  been  introduced  and  have  been  used  in  some  loco- 
motives, but  not  generally  so. 

Nearly  all  engines,  in  large  operations,  whether  horizontal 
or  vertical  and  direct  in  acting,  or  with  "  walking-beams " 
(see  Fig.  83,  A  A),  as  in  some  blowing  engines  on  the  Lehigh 
River,  at  Catasauqua  and  Hokendauqua,  Pa.,  and  Scranton, 
Pa.,  where  the  finest  and  largest  of  this  kind  are  to  be  found, 
owe  their  efficiency  to  the  mechanical  parts  just  described, 
variously  modified  to  meet  a  variety  of  purposes.  Some 
engines  are  arranged  for  reversing  the  action  of  the  wheel,  a 
convenience  which  becomes  in  some  mines  an  absolute  neces- 
sity. The  principle  is  easily  illustrated  :  Thus,  suppose,  Fig. 
82,  that  the  part  of  the  eccentric  rod  G  G,  resting  on  the 
"rocking  shaft,"  or  "rock  bar"  Y  Yf,  itself  turning  or 
"rocking,"  that  is,  oscillating,  at  H,  should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  end  at  Y  could  be  raised  to  F',  it  is  plain  that  a 
draw  of  the  eccentric  which  now  throws  Y  to  the  left  would 
instantly  throw  Y'  to  the  left,  and  consequently  reverse  the 
motion  of  F",  and  this  would  reverse  the  movement  of  the 
engine  and  keep  it  running  on  this  reverse  till  the  end  of  G  G 
was  restored  to  its  former  position  and  connection.  Various 


PLATE  XVIII. 


FIG.  83. 


FIG.  84. 


FIG.  85. 


u.  OF  a 

TiWice  page  316. 


TRANSPORTATION    ON    STEEP    INCLINES.  317 

ingenious  motions  have  been  invented,  especially  for  locomo- 
tives, and  adopted  in  various  engines  for  hoists  at  mines,  with 
the  object  of  quickly  reversing  the  engine. 

Thus  far  we  have  the  general  principles  of  the  steam- 
engine,  and  special  improvements  and  adaptations  will  be 
treated  of  in  another  place. 

TRANSPORTATION  ON  STEEP  INCLINES. 

In  cars  on  very  steep  inclines,  or  where  the  angle  of  in- 
clination changes,  the  wheels  are  in  some  cases  (Fig.  84)  run 
between  rails  S  S,  and  the  boxes  or  cars  are  covered  so  that 
the  material  may  not  fall  out,  even  if  there  should  be  a 
change  of  slope  from  one  side  to  the  other  of  a  vertical  line. 
One  side,  S,  is  partly  discontinued  in  the  drawing,  showing 
the  course  of  the  ore  from  the  car  T,  and  its  door. 

The  work  of  transportation  consists  of  the  running  of  the 
machinery,  filling  of  the  vessels,  displacing  and  replacing 
the  car  or  box,  and  the  emptying.  Each  of  these  employ- 
ments demands  a  certain  expertness  and  care.  In  order  to 
give  expedition,  as  well  as  security  in  transportation,  various 
means  and  appliances  are  used ;  for  example,  instead  of 
dumping  material  upon  the  ground  from  overhead  workings, 
it  is  always  advisable  to  dump  into  a  box,  barrel,  or  car,  and 
then  transport  the  car  to  the  place  of  delivery,  and  raise  the 
box,  barrel,  or  car  directly  up  to  the  surface.  (Fig.  85.)  A 
still  more  expeditious  method  is  to  use  cages,  generally  con- 
structed with  iron  rods,  with  a  board  floor  and  iron  rails  for 
the  box  on  car-wheels.  These  cages  are  attached  to  the  rope 
of  the  shaft ;  the  full  car  W,  Fig.  86,  is  run  from  the  working 
floor  immediately  upon  the  cage  floor,  and  securely  fastened 
for  hoisting  upwards,  whilst,  at  the  same  time,  another  cage 


318  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

with  an  empty  wagon  or  car  descends.  To  prevent  lateral 
motion  they  are  made  to  run  between  two  vertical  rails  by 
means  of  a  horse-shoe  clamp  or  guide  A  A,  and  in  order  to 
prevent  accident  from  falling  of  the  cage,  should  the  rope 
break,  safety  ratchets  fall  into  places  cut  to  receive  them  when 
the  rope  breaks. 

Another  kind  of  labor-saving  expedient  relates  to  the 
emptying  and  preservation  of  vessels.  These  arrangements 
consist  chiefly  in  movable  floor  or  sides  furnished  with  slide- 
bolts  or  springs  and  latches,  by  means  of  which  the  car  is 
opened  and  closed. 

Sometimes  the  emptying  is  effected  by  a  dump-cart  (see 
Fig.  84,  at  T).  In  some  cases  the  loaded  vessel  is  raised 
higher  than  the  mouth  of  the  shaft,  and  advantage  is  taken  of 
this  higher  grade  to  allow  the  loaded  vessel  or  car  to  pass,  by 
gravity,  upon  a  tramway  to  a  distant  place  of  deposit  or 
delivery. 

Another  plan  is  to  raise  the  car,  then  rolling  it  off  aside  to 
an  inclined  shute,  attaching  a  hook  to  the  back,  which  pre- 
vents the  car  from  passing  down  the  shute,  and  after  empty- 
ing returning  it  to  the  cage  or  platform  upon  which  it  was 
raised  from  below. 

FOR  INGRESS  OR  EGRESS  or  WORKMEN  ladders  have  been 
used,  placed  at  an  angle  of  60°  to  70°  upon  landings,  or  plat- 
forms, twelve  feet  apart  (vertically) ;  the  openings  in  the  land- 
ings are  not  placed  immediately  under  each  other,  but  alter- 
nately on  one  side  of  one  landing  and  on  the  other  side  of  the 
next.  Nothing  can  therefore  fall  directly  down.  (Fig.  87.) 
Where  the  depth  is  not  great,  climbing  trees  are  used  (see 
Figo.,88),  placed  at  a  considerable  angle,  not,  however,  too 
horizontally,  and  the  cuts  deep  and  not  slanting,  but  at  right 
angles  to  the  treading  edge  and  side  of  the  tree. 


FIG.  86. 


FIG.  87. 


PLATE  XIX. 


FIG.  88. 


FIG.  89. 


FIG.  90. 


FIG.  91, 


TIMBERING    AND    MASONRY.  319 

Another  plan,  suitable  for  narrow  ways,  is  by  a  series  of 
rounds,  like  parallel  ladders,  down  which  the  workman  passes, 
placing  his  feet  alternately  upon  one  and  another  round. 

All  these  consume  time,  and  annoy  the  workmen  when  any 
depth  is  to  be  traversed ;  hence  other  and  more  effective 
methods  are  adopted. 

One  method  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  89,  wherein  are  repre- 
sented two  series  of  platforms  fastened  to  rods,  and  placed  at 
equal  distances,  and  so  worked  by  machinery  above  that  they 
move  alternately  upward  and  downward,  There  are  hand- 
rails represented  in  the  figure,  and  the  workmen  pass  alter- 
nately from  one  to  another  platform  in  ascending  and  de- 
scending. 

TIMBERING  AND  MASONRY. 

When  the  rock  of  a  mine  is  not  perfectly  firm,  it  has  to  be 
supported  and  pains  taken  to  guard  against  a  crush,  while  the 
mine  is  made  accessible  in  all  its  parts.  This  calls  for  the 
work  of  mine-timbering  and  masonry. 

If  the  spaces  are  to  be  self-supporting,  this  rock  must  not 
only  be  firm,  but  whole,  and  the  form  of  the  spaces  must 
approach  the  circle  or  some  other  curve.  The  greater  or  less 
firmness  will  also  depend  upon  the  direction  in  which  the 
excavations  pierce  the  structure  of  the  rock.  A  tunnel,  for 
example,  which  runs  in  the  direction  of  the  strike  of  the  rock, 
or  a  shaft  whose  sides  are  parallel  with  the  same,  will  not  be 
so  secure  as  when  they  cross  that  direction. 

Well-known  means  of  supporting  open  spaces  in  mines  are 
by  pillars  of  native  rock,  or  that  left  standing  from  original 
rock,  and  supports  erected  from  waste  or  rejected  material. 
For  the  former  purpose,  that  rock  of  least  value  is  used ;  if, 


320  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

however,  valuable  ores  have  to  be  left  as  supports,  care  should 
be  exercised  that,  at  some  later  period,  this  material  may  be 
recovered.  For  artificial  pillars,  the  rubbish  is  used,  or  if  the 
ore  does  not  furnish  sufficient  rubbish,  a  quarry  is  made  in 
some  other  part  of  the  mine,  or  rocks  are  brought  from  the 
surface.  An  underground  quarry  may  be  made  by  digging 
out  a  space,  supporting  it  for  a  time,  and  then  permitting  it 
to  crush  in,  thus  affording  material,  but  keeping  open  all 
approaches  to  the  quarry.  The  bringing  of  rock  from  the 
surface  is  too  expensive  and  only  admissible  in  extreme  cases, 
and  then  such  rock  should  be  used  as  counter-weight  in 
drawing  up  useful  material,  or  sent  down  in  shutes,  if  possible. 
If  the  above-mentioned  simple  means  are  not  sufficient, 
timbering  or  masonry  has  to  be  resorted  to.  The  question  is 
which  of  the  two  may  be  most  suitable  and  advantageous. 
When  wood  is  scarce  and  not  always  attainable,  and  expen- 
sive, and  when  because  of  the  great  frangibility  of  the  rock, 
and  the  great  pressure,  strong  and  heavy  timbering  is  neces- 
sary, or  when  on  account  of  imperfect  ventilation,  the  timber- 
ing must  be  frequently  changed,  and  further,  when  the  mine 
is  to  be  kept  open  a  long  time,  and,  finally,  when  in  or  near 
the  mine  good  and  cheap  stone  is  to  be  had,  there  and  then 
masonry  certainly  deserves  the  preference,  even  if  it  should 
cost  more  at  the  outset,  for  by  its  longer  duration  it  will 
abundantly  make  up  the  greater  first  cost.  Frequently,  also, 
a  dry  wall  may  be  constructed  writh  great  advantage  and  at 
small  cost.  Before  either  method  of  timbering  or  masonry  is 
adopted,  it  must  be  determined  from  which  side  the  greater 
pressure  comes,  and  how  great  it  is. 


MINING  CARPENTRY.  321 

MINING  CARPENTRY. 

In  timbering,  much  depends  upon  the  nature  and  selec- 
tion as  well  as  the  preparation  and  placing  of  the  timbers. 
In  mining  timbers  as  a  general  fact  the  cone-bearing  trees 
— firs,  pines  and  the  like — showing  acicular  leaves,  are  pre- 
ferred to  the  broad  or  flat  leaf  bearing  trees.  However,  among 
the  latter,  the  oak  is  the  best.  Even  when  it  is  high  priced, 
the  best  and  most  durable  wood  should  be  used,  because  the 
expense  of  frequent  renewal  is  avoided.  In  selecting  wood, 
choose  straight  pieces,  and  use  more  and  stronger  pieces  ac- 
cording to  the  pressure,  remembering  that  it  is  better  to  have 
too  much  than  too  little.  So  far  as  the  preparation  is  con- 
cerned, avoid  weakening  the  wood  by  too  much  cutting  away 
either  in  tenons  or  in  dressing.  As  a  general  thing  timber  is 
used  unhewed,  in  order  that  none  of  its  strength  shall  be  lost. 

In  regard  to  the  position  of  timber,  it  is  a  well-known  fact 
that  every  piece  of  timber  can  support  a  greater  weight  lon- 
gitudinally than  laterally,  and  hence  vertically  than  horizon- 
tally, and  supports  the  greater  amount  of  pressure  at  right 
angles  to  the  grain.  So  also  in  pieces  of  the  same  thickness,  a 
short  piece  will  support  a  greater  weight  than  a  long  piece. 

In  order  to  secure  greater  durability  in  timbering,  the  main 
parts  of  it  are  let  into  the  rock.  Fig.  90  represents  a  niche 
•cut  sloping  from  the  top  into  which  the  beam  falls  and  is  held 
permanently,  while,  at  the  opposite  side,  the  hole  is  only  large 
enough  to  receive  the  end  of  the  beam.  For  measuring  ac- 
curately two  rods  may  be  used,  which,  held  together  and  slid 
outwardly,  may  be  marked  and  the  measure  obtained  as  in 
Fig.  91.  The  beam  is  then  cut  accurately,  so  as  to  be  firmly 
wedged  in  place.  Should  the  rock  on  either  side  be  brittle  or 
21 


322  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

soft,  it  would  not  be  wise  to  put  the  ends  of  the  beams  im- 
mediately against  it,  but  they  must  be  made  to  rest  against 
pieces  and  upon  plates  or  sills,  as  in  Fig.  92. 

The  timber  is  intended  to  be  either  permanent  or  tem- 
porary. The  permanent  is  constructed  with  a  view  to  long 
duration,  the  temporary  for  only  a  short  time,  until  it  can  be 
replaced  by  more  permanent  timbering  or  masonry. 

If  in  a  gallery  or  drift  only  one  wall  overhanging  or  un- 
derlying is  to  be  supported,  it  is  done  by  putting  one  end  of 
a  cross-beam,  Fig.  93,  into  a  groove  of  solid  rock,  and  wedg- 
ing the  other  end  firmly  or  tightly  against  the  wall  to  be 
supported.  Should  the  wall  itself  be  brittle,  a  wall-beam,  R, 
must  be  placed  against  the  wall,  and  the  pillar  or  stay -beam 
be  securely  wedged  against  it,  Fig.  94.  Should  both  walls  be 
insecure,  two  such  beams  must  be  used,  Fig.  95.  In  galleries 
and  drifts  a  side- wall  is  secured  by  posts  let  into  a  groove  at  the 
bottom  and  wedged  against  the  weak  side,  Fig.  96.  Should 
the  side  be  firm,  but  the  roof  brittle,  the  beams  are  put  into 
the  grooves,  Fig.  97,  and  covered  with  slabs.  Fig.  98  repre- 
sents the  method  of  timbering  in  approaching  movable  and 
loose  masses  of  soil  or  rubbish,  also  for  draining  and  ventila- 
tion, being  the  strongest  timbering  in  narrow  ways. 

When  the  side  and  the  roof  need  support,  the  method  is 
as  represented  in  Fig.  99.  If  both  sides  and  the  roof  are  to 
be  secured,  three-quarter  frames  are  used,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
100,  or  whole  frames,  as  shown  in  Fig.  101.  The  frames 
consist  of  the  posts  S  S,  Fig.  102,  and  the  cross-piece  K. 
They  are  framed  into  each  other ;  the  projecting  parts  C  Dr 
are  called  the  foreheads  and  E  and  F  the  faces.  The  thickness 
of  the  posts  used  for  frames  is  generally  from  seven  to  nine 
inches.  Since  shorter  beams  can  sustain  (overhead),  a  greater 


FIG.  92. 


PLATE  XX. 

FIG.  93. 


FIG.  94. 


322. 


PLATE  XX I 


FIG.  95. 


FIG.  96. 


FIG.  97. 


PLATE  XXII. 


FIG.  98. 


FIG.  99. 


FIG.  100. 


U.  OF  C. 

To  face  page  322. 


FIG  101 


FIG.  103. 


FIG.  104. 


FIG.  105. 


FIG.  106. 


MINING    CARPENTRY.  323 

pressure,  and  also  require  less  wood,  the  two  posts  are  gene- 
rally made  to  incline  toward  each  other.  The  posts  must  be 
placed  at  right  angles  to  the  course  of  the  gallery  or  of  direc- 
tion and  be  of  equal  height  or  length,  in  order  that  the  cross- 
beams may  rest  upon  them  horizontally  and  that  the  pressure 
may  be  equally  distributed. 

The  method  of  framing  depends  upon  the  direction  from 
which  the  pressure  comes  and  upon  its  force  or  amount  of 
pressure.  Should  the  pressure  be  equal  upon  all  sides  and 
not  very  great,  then  the  cross-beam  is  placed  as  in  Fig.  103  ; 
but  if  the  side  pressure  predominates,  then  as  in  Fig.  104  ; 
and  if  the  pressure  be  very  great,  then  as  in  Fig.  105.  Great 
pressure  from  above  is  met  with  frames  whose  posts  and  caps 
are  not  scored  in,  as  in  Fig.  106,  where  the  posts  at  the  head 
or  end  are  only  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  cap.  In  order 
that  the  posts  may  not  be  displaced,  projecting  spikes  or  pins, 
V  V,  are  driven  into  the  cap  pieces  close  to  the  posts.  To 
give  the  frame  a  still  greater  strength,  additional  cross-wedges 
or  braces  are  placed  between  the  posts  under  the  caps,  as  in 
Fig.  107,  and  kept  in  place  by  spikes. 

In  salt  mines,  posts  and  caps  are  formed  together  in  a  very 
simple  manner,  in  order  to  resist  a  very  great  and  uniform 
pressure.  The  posts  at  the  head  are  sawed  and  beveled  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  cap  lies  with  a  flat  face  upon  the 
head,  and  then  the  edge  of  the  inner  corner  of  the  post  is 
hewn  off,  as  in  Fig.  108,  B.  In  the  A  form  the  cap  log  is 
hewn  off  to  an  acute  angle,  that  the  lateral  pressure  may  tend 
to  a  more  nearly  vertical  direction. 

When  the  floor  is  loose  and  soft,  and  the  posts  are  liable  to 
sink,  ground  sills  have  to  be  placed  under  them,  as  in  Fig. 
109.  When  the  frames  are  near  to  each  other  long  sills  are 


324  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

preferred,  but  when  the  frames  are  some  distance  apart,  short 
sills.  The  long  sills  G,  Fig.  109,  are  unhewn  logs  which  are 
placed  in  the  corners  of  the  floor,  and  upon  which  several 
frames  are  erected.  When  the  pressure  upon  the  sides  is  so 
great  that  both  sills  and  posts  might  be  crowded  into  the 
gallery,  wedge  braces  have  to  be  placed  every  six  feet,  which 
are  hollowed  out  at  the  ends,  as  on  S  S,  to  fit  the  long  sills  G. 
The  short  ground  sills  G,  Fig.  110,  are  placed  across  the  floor 
of  the  gallery,  generally  let  into  the  sides  of  the  gallery  rock- 
wall,  and  each  sill  carries  its  own  frames. 

The  frames  are  placed  farther  apart,  or  nearer,  according  to 
the  greatness  of  the  pressure ;  and  in  the  former  case,  if  the 
rock  be  liable  to  crumble,  the  lining  of  slabs,  or  split  logs,  or 
saplings,  Fig.  Ill,  are  used.  On  the  outside  of  the  frames, 
the  split  logs  are  placed  longitudinally  with  the  flat  sides 
towards  or  against  the  uprights,  and  the  empty  space  between 
them  and  the  walls  is  carefully  filled  in  with  rock. 

In  ground  altogether  crumbling,  or  where  old  works  are  to 
be  re-opened  by  driving  piles  horizontally,  then  use  timber 
half  a  foot  wide,  and  made  of  split  or  sawn  timber  about  six 
feet  in  length.  When  a  loose  face  or  breast  of  a  gallery  is  to 
be  opened  and  timbered,  the  first  thing  is  to  set  an  entire 
frame  in  place  securely  and  then  drive  the  above-mentioned 
wedges  or  piles  on  the  outside  of  the  frame  two  or  three  feet 
into  the  soil.  The  encompassed  mass  is  then  removed  and 
the  piles  are  driven  in  deeper.  Should  the  ground  be  exceed- 
ingly loose,  a  second  frame  has  to  be  erected  before  the  piles 
are  driven  a  second  time,  and  in  this  manner  we  proceed 
until  the  piles  are  driven  up  to  the  full  extent.  (See  Figs. 
112,  113.) 

In  the  case  when  the  sides  are  firm  and  only  the  roof  is 


FIG.  107. 


PLATE  XXIV. 
FIG.  108. 


FIG.  109. 


FIG.  110. 


FIG.  111. 


PLATE  XXV. 


FIG.  112 


FIG.  117. 


FIG.  113 


FIG.  114. 


FIG.  115. 


FIG.  116. 


MINING    CARPENTRY.  325 

brittle  or  soft,  a  cross-beam  A,  Fig.  113,  is  wedged  in  over 
head ;  over  this  piles  are  driven  close  to  each  other  upon  a 
slight  rise  or  angle  of  ascent  until  they  have  penetrated  three 
or  four  feet.  When  the  dirt  is  taken  out,  a  second  beam  is 
placed,  and  then  a  third  ;  then  a  new  beginning  is  made  at 
A' ,  and  then  proceeding  as  before. 

When  a  side,  or  drift  gallery,  is  to  be  opened  from  another 
and  timbered  gallery,  the  caps  of  the  old  gallery  are  supported 
on  the  side  upon  which  the  new  drift  is  to  be  opened  by  post 
S,  Fig.  114,  and  a  cap  beam  or  collar  I;  then  the  posts  of  the 
old  frame  are  removed.  (Fig.  114.) 

If  the  floor  of  a  gallery  or  drift  is  to  be  prepared  for  trans- 
portation and  drainage,  a  timbered  floor  has  to  be  constructed, 
and  according  to  the  amount  of  water  to  be  drained  off,  this 
floor  is  raised  from  one  to  three  feet  above  the  ground.  (Fig. 
115.)  In  galleries  untimbered,  this  is  accomplished  by  plac- 
ing in  distances  of  six  to  twelve  feet  cross-beams  from  four  to 
eight  inches  square,  let  into  the  wall-sides  upon  which  the 
flooring  is  placed.  In  timbered  galleries  the  cross-beams  are 
placed  between  the  posts  of  the  frames,  as  in  Fig.  116.  In 
placing  the  boards  they  should  be  closely  joined  and  fastened 
down  with  wooden  pins.  When  the  vein  pitches  consider- 
ably, so  that  the  floor-beam  cannot  be  let  into  both  sides,  as 
in  Fig.  117,  the  post  or  sill-beam  T  is  first  let  into  the  rock, 
and  the  floor-beam  8  is  secured  upon  this. 

The  floor  must  have  not  only  a  direction  parallel  with  the 
course  of  the  gallery,  but  also  be  horizontal  from  side  to  side ; 
therefore  the  boards  before  they  are  nailed  are  tried  with  the 
level,  or  by  pouring  a  little  water  in  a  trough  placed  upon 
them. 

When  the  water  is  drained  off  upon  one  of  the  sides  in  a 


326  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

ditch  or  gutter  (Figs.  17,  18)  then  the  board  floor  rests  imme- 
diately upon  the  rock  floor  of  the  gallery  on  proper  joists  or 
scantling. 

Floor  for  transportation  is  either  a  common  open  floor  or 
tight  floor ;  an  open  floor  has  only  a  single  board  J9,  Fig.  116. 
A  tight  floor  is  an  entire  covering,  used,  not  only  for  trans- 
portation, but  for  ventilation  (Fig.  115). 

TIMBERING  or  SHAFTS. 

It  is  seldom  the  case  that  shafts  are  sunk  for  the  entire  dis- 
tance in  solid  rock  which  requires  no  support.  As  a  general 
thing  all  shafts  require  more  or  less  timbering.  This  cannot 
be  made  permanent  at  once,  but  a  preparatory,  or  temporary, 
timbering  has  to  be  used  at  first. 

Timbering  of  shafts  is  thus  commenced :  upon  the  leveled 
ground  the  frame  is  laid  ;  this  frame  consists  of  oak  beams, 
ten  by  twelve  inches,  and  the  length  according  to  the  size  of 
the  shaft,  allowing  from  two  to  three  feet  for  the  projections 
over  the  frame  which  are  intended  to  be  let  into  the  sides  of 
the  shafts.  (Fig.  118.)  When  the  shaft  is  sunk  from  the  sur- 
face, the  first,  or  "  day  frame,"  has  to  be  raised  and  set  higher 
than  the  shaft  mouth  to  obtain  height  of  level  for  discharging 
material.  This  frame  should  be  set  to  the  exact  position 
intended  for  the  shaft,  and  the  subsequent  excavation  is 
measured  by  a  plumb-line  from  its  corner.  To  extract  mate- 
rial a  windlass  is  erected,  and  also  a  pump,  if  necessary,  to 
remove  the  water. 

As  long  as  the  excavation  proceeds  through  insecure  rock, 
temporary  timbering  of  unhewn,  but  of  barked  wood,  is  used. 
For  this  purpose  holes  are  made  into  the  corners  of  the 
shorter  sides,  into  which  the  beams  I J,  Fig.  119,  are  placed  ; 


PLATE  XXVI. 


FIG.  118. 


FIG.  120. 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  121. 


To  face  page  326. 


TIMBERING    OF    SHAFTS.  327 

these  are  kept  apart  by  cross-beams  E  E  E,  according  to  the 
number  of  divisions  the  shaft  shall  contain.  These  parts  are 
concave  at  the  ends  to  fit  the  other  timber,  and  all  these 
timbers,  when  placed,  as  in  Fig.  119,  constitute  a  lock  frame. 
When  the  rock  is  very  friable,  the  locks  are  placed  two  and 
three  feet  apart ;  when  the  rock  is  firmer  they  may  be  further 
apart.  On  the  outside  of  these  frames  casings  or  linings  are 
placed,  as  in  Fig.  120. 

When  the  shaft  has  proceeded  with  temporary  timbering  for 
some  distance,  and  this  is  no  longer  sufficient  for  the  pressure, 
steps  must  be  taken  for  the  erection  of  permanent  timber. 
This  must  be  begun  by  preparing  a  firm  foundation.  For 
this  purpose  holes  are  made  into  the  long  sides  of  the  shaft 
corresponding  with  the  partitions  of  the  shafts,  and  into 
these,  cross-beams  T  T  T  (Fig.  121)  are  placed ;  these  beams 
are  square,  and  intended  to  carry  the  rest  of  the  timbering. 
Should  the  rock  be  insecure,  long  beams  L  are  let  into  very 
deep  holes  in  the  shorter  shaft  sides,  and  upon  these  cross- 
beams T  are  placed,  and  to  obtain  still  greater  security  braces 
S  are  placed  between  the  long  beams  under  the  cross-beams  or 
ties.  Such  foundation  frames  are  placed  at  distances  of  from 
one  to  four  fathoms,  according  to  the  firmness  of  the  soil.  If 
the  ground  is.  not  sufficiently  firm  for  the  holes  of  the  beams, 
they  have  to  be  furnished  with  ground  plates  and  sills,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  95. 

The  lining  of  shaft  timbering  may  be  constructed  in  three 
ways,  as  in  Fig.  122,  which  is  a  vertical  cross  section,  wherein 
the  uprights  R  R  are  placed  vertically  between  the  two  cross- 
beams T  T,  and  to  secure  them  still  further  the  diagonal 
braces  G  G  G  serve  to  hold  the  lining  logs,  or  slabs,  against 
the  sides  of  the  shaft.  This  is  especially  suitable  for  the 


328  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

shafts  wherein  the  only  long  sides  A  B,  A  B,  are  insecure.  In 
the  second  method  the  lining  boards  are  vertically  placed 
(Fig.  123),  and  the  frames  are  placed  upon  stub-pillars  at  the 
corners,  the  partition  cross-pieces  are  let  into  the  longer 
beams,  and  to  prevent  the  striking  of  the  buckets  may  be 
lined  inside  with  timbers  vertically  placed.  The  frames  are 
distant  apart  not  more  than  three  feet,  the  sub-pillars  being 
proportionate.  This  method  is  adapted  to  a  firmer  rock, 
where  the  pressure  is  uniform  upon  all  four  sides.  The  space 
behind  the  lining  must  be  filled  up.  This  method  of  lining 
does  not  require  hewn  timbers,  but  it  is  sufficient  if  the  frame 
which  rests  immediately  upon  the  foundation  frame,  and 
every  alternate  one,  be  of  hewn  timber. 

The  third  method,  shown  in  Fig.  124,  which  consists  of 
frames  placed  one  on  top  of  the  other,  is  used  when  very  great 
pressure  has  to  be  resisted  and  the  ground  is  very  loose.  In 
order  that  no  linings  may  be  required,  hewn  timbers  are  used 
for  the  frames.  Instead  of  joining  them  together  by  half 
tenoning,  as  in  Fig.  124,  they  may  also  be  joined  by  a  mitre 
cut,  as  in  Fig.  125. 

When  all  the  sides  of  a  shaft  do  not  need  timbering,  the 
firm  side  is  left  open.  Supposing  one  of  the  long  sides  needs 
timbering,  then  the  beam  is  let  into  the  side,  as  in  Fig.  126, 
and  held  against  that  side  by  the  cross  beams  R  R,  which  are 
concave  against  the  sustaining  beam,  and  let  into  the  wall  at 
the  other  ends.  (Figs.  126,  127.) 

In  Fig.  127,  wre  have  the  method  of  timbering  when  the 
short  sides  need  timbering,  and  the  long  are  firm. 

When  only  portions  of  the  shaft  need  timbering,  either  one 
or  other  of  the  already  described  methods  may  be  used  as 
needed. 


FIG.  122. 


PLATE  XXVII. 
FIG.  125. 


FIG.  126. 


FIG.  127. 


To  face  page  328. 


TIMBERING    OF    SHAFTS.  329 

As  in  the  case  of  galleries,  so  in  shafts,  it  may  be  necessary 
to  proceed  to  pile-driving,  as  in  Fig.  128.  When  the  piles 
have  been  driven  down  from  three  to  four  feet  below  the  up- 
per frame  $,  and  the  loose  material  has  been  taken  out,  then 
follows  a  second  local  frame  S',  and  between  the  two,  posts 
may  be  put  at  the  corners,  should  it  be  necessary.  Therefore 
the  piles  are  driven  deeper  into  the  ground,  and  the  method 
of  procedure  is  as  before. 

When  perpendicular  shafts  have  several  divisions,  these 
must  be  timbered  to  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  are  to 
be  used.  When  one  is  to  be  used  by  the  miners  alone,  it  is 
separated  from  the  transporting  shaft  by  a  partition,  Fig.  87, 
V,  which  is  nailed  to  the  partition  beams.  Within  the  parti- 
tion, platforms  are  made  twelve  feet  apart  upon  which  the 
ladders  are  placed,  as  in  Fig.  87. 

In  the  transporting  division,  care  has  to  be  taken  that  the 
buckets,  or  other  vessels,  do  not  strike  or  catch  on  the  sides. 
In  the  other  division  (pumping  or  ventilating),  platforms,  simi- 
lar to  those  in  Fig.  87,  are  erected  for  the  purpose  of  examin- 
ing the  machinery,  and  keeping  it  in  order.  The  mouth  of  a 
gallery  opening  into  a  shaft  ought  to  be  provided  with  doors 
or  way-boards  to  prevent  accident.  When  a  transporting 
gallery  opens  into  a  shaft,  a  place  for  filling  the  vessels  has  to 
be  prepared.  In  order  to  its  complete  timbering,  long  ground- 
sills are  placed  along  its  two  sides,  G  G  G,  Fig.  129.  Upon  these 
posts,  S  S,  are  placed  nicely  fitted,  and  therefore,  perhaps,  con- 
cave at  the  lower  ends  ;  and  upon  the  latter,  long  joists  II, 
driven  firmly  against  the  ceiling,  or  upper  wall ;  and  when 
from  friability  of  this  wall,  or  great  pressure,  additional  lining 
is  needed,  then  an  additional  joist  M  is  used  with  its  corres- 
ponding support.  This  arrangement  is  adopted  when  a  larger 


330  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

chamber  is  demanded  whose  width  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
gallery.  Where  such  a  chamber  is  situated  in  solid  rock,  all 
that  is  required  is  to  provide  timbering  for  it  where  it  opens 
into  the  shaft.  Here  a  sort  of  door-frame  is  erected.  For  this 
purpose  holes  are  cut  in  the  short  sides,  and  a  heavy  sill  is 
placed  along  the  edge  of  the  long  sides  G,  Fig.  130  ;  a  joist  I 
corresponding  with  the  ceiling  of  the  chamber  furnished  with 
tenon  holes  into  which  the  posts  SS  are  fitted.  These  spaces 
thus  formed  are  either  closed  permanently  as  at  A,  or  doors, 
T  T,  are  provided  which  open  into  the  chamber,  and  during 
the  wrorking  hours  are  closed,  and  may  be  during  other 
hours.  Above,  just  below  the  joists,  are  placed  two 
rollers  W  W,  projecting  slightly  into  the  shaft  to  prevent 
friction  on  the  joists  when  the  vessel  is  drawn  up.  As  a  safety 
for  the  miners,  supports  K  K  are  firmly  fastened  upon  the  two 
uprights  SS.  The  space  of  the  chamber  is  generally  divided 
off  by  posts  into  several  partitions  for  the  reception  of  different 
kinds  of  material,  and  platforms  are  erected  inclining  toward 
the  gallery  away  from  the  shaft. 

TIMBERING  OF  INCLINED  SHAFTS  (SLOPES). 

In  slopes,  the  roof  generally  needs  the  most  support.  When, 
therefore,  it  is  not  perfectly  safe,  joists  7,  Fig.  131,  are  laid 
across  the  shaft,  and  propped  up  by  posts  S,  truly  fitted. 
These  are  perpendicular  to  the  direction,  and  placed  in  holes, 
or,  when  necessary,  upon  floor  joists,  as  seen  in  Fig.  131  at 
G  G.  These  are  placed  nearer  or  further  apart,  as  determined 
by  the  nature  of  the  rock  or  ground.  When  the  overhanging 
rock  is  very  brittle  and  unsafe,  the  joists  are  placed  very  near 
together.  (See  Fig.  132.)  Under  them  are  placed  long  plate 
beams  supported  on  posts  S  S  S,  and  with  diagonal  braces, 


FIG.  123. 


PLATE  XXVIII. 
FIG.  131. 


FIG.  130. 


To  face  page  330. 


TIMBERING    NECESSARY    FOR    WORKING    IN    MINES.         331 

Z  Z,  if  required,  as  seen  in  the  figure  ;  and  also  when  neces- 
sary a  ground  sill  is  used.  When  the  roof  is  firm,  separate 
posts,  S,  are  needed  only  for  partitions  of  the  inclined  shaft, 
which  are  let  into  holes,  or  placed  upon  sills,  and  to  which 
slabs  or  boards  are  nailed.  The  partition  through  which  the 
miners  pass  is  furnished  with  platforms  B,  or  steps  T,  Fig. 
133.  The  former  are  placed  upon  the  ground  floor  from  the 
overhanging  to  the  underlying  wall,  and  the  cleats  or  steps  on 
the  underlying  wall.  These  cleats  must  have  sufficient  depth 
so  as  to  hold  the  post.  There  is  also  a  hand-rail,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  133.  For  transporting  vessels  having  wheels,  the  floor 
of  the  inclined  shaft  is  fitted  with  a  tramway,  or  rail-track  of 
ordinary  iron  or  wooden  rails,  or  such  as  represented  in  Fig. 
70,  or  as  in  Fig.  84. 

Shutes  or  transporting  shafts,  used  also  for  miners'  way, 
must  be  provided  with  a  strong  partition  (see  Fig.  134),  and 
the  shute  itself,  if  it  be  irregular  in  inclination,  should  be 
furnished  with  a  board  floor  in  order  that  the  material  may 
the  more  readily  slide  down. 

On  the  mouth  of  any  shaft  a  shed  should  be  built  at  first 
for  the  windlass  and  pump,  and  at  a  later  period,  when  the 
shaft  has  been  driven  deeper,  and  machinery  is  necessary,  a 
larger  head-house  should  be  built. 

TIMBERING  NECESSARY  FOR  WORKING  IN  MINES. 

The  open  spaces  arising  from  abstraction  or  withdrawal 
of  mineral  deposit  demand  special  timbering.  In  working 
overhead,  when  the  roof  has  been  hewn  away  to  a  certain 
extent,  and  the  gallery  beneath  is  to  remain  open,  a  timber 
ceiling  is  prepared  by  placing  joists  E,  Fig.  135,  across  the 
gallery  at  the  usual  height,  which  joists  are  let  into  the  walls 


332  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

and  covered  with  suitable  lining  or  flooring,  and  upon  this 
rubbish  is  cast.  In  very  steep  veins  the  joist  is  placed  as 
shown  in  Fig.  135  by  dotted  lines  E' ',  in  order  that  the  under- 
lying rock  may  bear  more  of  the  weight.  When  the  over- 
head working  has  proceeded  for  some  distance,  and  the  mass 
of  rubbish  becomes  too  heavy  for  the  first  set  of  timbers,  as  in 
Fig.  136,  K,  then  at  suitable  distances  other  timber  has  to  be 
provided,  as  Kr ,  in  order  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the  rub- 
bish. When  a  vein,  or  lode,  has  considerable  thickness,  and 
the  joist  E,  Fig.  137,  as  a  consequence,  has  to  be  long,  it  is 
supported  by  posts  S  S.  In  working  downward  on  benches, 
as  in  Fig.  138,  where  A  E  represents  the  floor  of  the  gallery 
which  has  been  cut  away  and  replaced  by  timbers,  the  method 
of  procedure  is  as  follows :  Joists,  as  under  A  B,  are  placed  in 
holes  in  the  sides  of  the  wall  and  a  suitable  floor  upon  them. 
Now,  as  the  steps  descend,  still  lower  additional  floors,  K  Kf, 
are  constructed  to  receive  the  rubbish. 

In  taking  out  the  ore  from  large  deposits,  the  method  of 
timbering  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  already  described, 
only  011  a  greater  scale.  Sometimes  it  is  sufficient  to  use 
simply  posts  or  props  (see  Fig.  139),  or  box  pillars  may  be 
used,  or  door-frames  with  several  posts,  as  in  Fig.  140,  or  the 
method  is  adopted  as  suggested  in  Fig.  129.  It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  in  timbering  larger  spaces  stronger  timbers 
are  needed,  and  a  method  of  joining,  or  combining  them, 
which  will  give  the  greatest  resistance  or  durability. 

RENEWING  TIMBERING. 

When  a  timber  decays,  or  when  a  break  occurs  in  the 
same,  the  insecure  has  to  be  replaced  by  that  which  is  new 
and  strong.  For  this  purpose  the  timbering  should  be  con- 


PLATE  XXIX. 


FIG.  133. 


FIG.  134. 


FIG.  135. 


FIG.  136. 


To  face  page  332. 


MASONRY.  333 

structed  in  the  beginning,  so  as  to  facilitate  these  repairs,  that 
is,  in  such  a  manner  that  any  piece  may  be  taken  out  and 
replaced  by  another  without  tearing  to  pieces  the  whole  frame. 
These  repairs  should  be  made  in  good  time,  so  that  danger  or 
loss  may  be  avoided. 

When  single  frames  are  to  be  replaced,  the  new  cap  is  put 
against  the  ceiling,  the  posts  are  put  into  the  holes,  and 
driven  or  wedged  against  the  cap  in  order  that  the  posts  may 
not  yield.  Pegs,  as  in  Fig.  106,  are  driven  in,  or  cross-braces 
are  used,  as  in  Fig.  107.  In  replacing  shaft  timbers,  the 
work  proceeds  from  below  upwards.  The  support  of  the 
upper  portion  must  precede  the  work.  The  first  thing  is  to 
erect  a  firm  platform  at  the  place  where  the  repairs  are  to  be 
made.  The  beams  upon  which  the  platform  rests  may  be 
placed  upon  the  lock-frames  represented  in  Fig.  122,  T  T,  or 
upon  any  of  the  frames,  Fig.  123  ;  but  where  the  shaft  is  tim- 
bered according  to  the  method  in  Fig.  124,  holes  for  the  re- 
ception of  beams  six  feet  apart,  vertically,  ought  to  be  left. 
(See  L,  Fig.  124.)  Before  a  frame  is  removed,  the  one  imme- 
diately over  it  is  propped  up  securely  by  braces  until  the 
defective  frame  is  removed  and  the  new  put  in  its  place. 
Where  single  frames  are  to  be  removed  from  shafts,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  124,  posts  or  timbers  which  have  the  ends  fitted  to 
the  proper  curvature  are  wedged  in  upon  the  sides  separately, 
that  is,  one  by  one. 

MASONRY. 

Walls  of  the  gallery  are  either  wet-laid,  or  are  dry  walls, 
that  is,  laid  in  mortar,  or  without  mortar ;  straight  or  curved, 
level  or  arched.  In  ordinary  walls  the  stones  are  laid  flat 
and  the  wall  rises  perpendicularly.  In  arched  masonry,  the 


334  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

stones  receive  a  wedge-shape  form  and  the  walls  ascend  in  a 
curve. 

A  durable  masonry  requires  good  and  suitable  materials,  a 
firm  foundation  and  exact  joining  of  the  stones.  The  most 
suitable  building  stones  are  thick  table  pieces  with  broad, 
long,  flat  faces.  In  arched  masonry  the  stones  are  generally 
specially  prepared. 

In  order  to  prepare  good  common  mortar,  from  six  to  ten 
parts  of  sand  are  taken  to  one  of  lime  slaked  ;  the  mass  is 
stirred  while  the  water  is  being  added,  and  it  is  best  to  make 
only  as  much  as  can  be  used  up  in  one  day.  When  walls  are 
to  be  built  in  a  damp  place,  or  where  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
water,  it  is  better  to  use  hydraulic  mortar,  which  hardens  in 
the  water.  This  is  prepared  by  adding  hydraulic  cement  or 
plaster-of-Paris.  Such  an  addition  is  of  advantage  to  common 
mortar,  because  mines  always  are  more  or  less  damp.  The 
foundation  of  the  walls  should,  if  possible,  be  made  in  the 
solid  rock  ;  but  when  this  cannot  be  done,  large  stones  should 
be  used  or  arches  constructed. 

For  a  proper  joining  of  stones  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should  lie  flat  upon  each  other,  and  that  some  should  be  used 
as  runners,  that  is,  presenting  a  long  face  on  the  wall  front, 
and  others  as  binders,  that  is,  running  inwards  and  across  the 
wall  from  front  backward. 

It  is  of  course  understood  that  each  stone  shall  cross  the 
joints  of  two  others  underlying  (see  Fig.  141),  or  as  it  is 
called,  "  break  joint ;  "  the  outward  faces  ought  not  to  project, 
but  must  fall  in  line  in 'one  plane,  and  the  interstices  should 
be  filled  with  spalls  and  mortar,  and,  in  dry  walls,  with  moss 
and  spalls.  Behind  the  wall  this  space  should  be  completely 
filled  up  either  by  rubbish  or  dry  wall. 


FIG.  137. 


PLATE  XXX. 

FIG.  138. 


FIG.  139. 


w 

liiu, 


FIG.  141. 


FIG.  143. 


FIG.  140. 


FIG.  142. 


To  face  page  334. 


MASONRY.  335 

Before  beginning  a  wall  a  sufficient  space  has  to  be  cleared  ; 
in  order  to  do  this  the  gallery  is  made  larger,  when  first 
driven,  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall  to  be  put  up,  or  enlarged 
afterwards ;  then  the  direction  and  the  amount  of  pressure 
have  to  be  determined ;  the  greater  the  pressure  the  thicker 
the  wall,  and  its  main  strength  is  applied  toward  the  main 
pressure.  The  strength  of  a  wall  depends  upon  its  thickness, 
the  proper  joining  of  the  stones,  and  upon  the  size  of  the 
stones.  Small  stones  are  more  difficult  to  be  united,  and  re- 
quire more  mortar,  and  afford  on  that  very  account  less 
strength. 

To  oppose  or  resist  a  slight  pressure  upon  the  sides,  it  is 
frequently  sufficient  to  erect  a  dry  wall,  and  a  mortar  wall  is 
certainly  strong  enough.  To  give  to  such  a  wall  a  firmer 
position,  the  ground  is  excavated  to  some  depth,  and,  on  the 
side  of  the  pressure,  the  foot  of  the  wall  is  made  to  slope  or 
slant  downward  toward  the  pressure,  as  A  in  Fig.  142.  A 
level  wall  is  used  also  when  galleries  are  to  be  constructed  in 
large  excavated  spaces.  The  wall  is  built  up  of  large  pieces 
of  rock  and  filled  up  behind  to  the  overhanging  and  under- 
lying wall  to  the  limits  of  the  chamber.  On  top  of  the  wall 
caps  or  joists  are  placed,  which  are  covered  with  suitable 
covering  and  walled  over  or  covered  with  rock.  (Fig.  143.) 

Where  great  strength  and  durability  are  required,  arched 
masonry  is  used.  The  arch  and  the  semicircle  are  the  curves 
generally  employed,  also  small  segments  of  a  circle,  and  the 
ellipse,  which  has  either  an  egg  shape,  an  oval,  or  elliptical, 
as  the  pressure,  the  height  and  width,  etc., may  demand.  In 
arched  masonry  or  in  vaults  we  distinguish  the  span,  the 
height,  and  the  strength.  By  the  span  is  meant  the  length 
of  the  arch,  or  the  distance  A  B,  Fig.  144,  measured  between 


336  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

the  two  feet  of  the  arch  inside.  By  the  height  is  understood 
the  perpendicular  distance  from  A  B  to  the  highest  point  of 
the  arch  D.  The  thickness  or  strength  of  an  arch  is  rep- 
resented in  the  figure  by  the  thickness  of  the  wall.  The  sup- 
ports for  the  feet  of  the  arch  are  called  the  holding. 

The  arches  themselves  are  either  whole,  that  is,  closed  on 
all  sides ;  or  half,  that  is,  such  as  have  only  a  half  of  the 
curved  line ;  or  partial,  that  is,  when  the  curve  is  smaller 
than  a  semicircle. 

The  length,  or  span,  and  the  height  of  the  arch,  stand  in 
a  certain  relation  to  each  other,  that  is,  for  any  six  feet  of 
length  two  feet  of  height  are  usually  reckoned.  When  the 
span  is  greater,  the  height  is  usually  shorter  than  the  above 
ratio  in  proportion,  in  order  that  the  vault  may  not  occupy 
too  much  room  and  require  too  much  labor  in  its  erection. 
But  since  its  supporting  power  is  thereby  weakened,  it  re- 
ceives greater  thickness.  The  height  of  the  arch  must  be 
proportioned  to  the  pressure,  and  in  such  a  way  that  all  the 
vaulting  may  have  a  uniform  direction  to  the  centre.  The 
beds  are  hewn  into  the  solid  rock  or  prepared  by  masonry. 
The  surfaces  must  lie  in  the  same  line  with  the  radii  C  A, 
C  B,  which  determine  the  arch.  (Fig.  145.) 

In  order  to  give  to  an.  arch  the  proper  curve,  forms  or  pat- 
terns are  made  of  boards.  These  are  joined  together  and  cut 
according  to  the  curve  desired,  and  then  so  placed  that  the 
arch  may  be  built  upon  it.  The  radius  of  the  form,  or  curve, 
must,  however,  be  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  inch  shorter 
than  that  of  the  desired  curve,  because  upon  these  forms  a 
shield  is  nailed  upon  which  the  arch  is  built.  Moreover, 
these  patterns  must  be  so  placed  as  not  to  obstruct  the  free 
passage. 


PLATE  XXXI. 


FIG.  144. 


FIG.  145. 


FIG.  146. 


FIG.  147. 


FIG.  148. 


FIG.  149. 


,'       ^ 

L. 


To  face  page  336. 


MASONRY.  337 

Fig,  146  represents  the  form  for  a  semicircular  arch.  At 
N  a  nail  is  driven,  to  which  .  the  string  is  tied  for  describing 
the  curve.  Instead  of  disposing  the  boards  as  in  Fig  146, 
they  may  be  placed  as  in  Fig.  147,  where  the  nail  is  driven 
into  a  stake  at  P,  and  the  boards  so  placed  as  to  receive  the 
curve  symmetrically.  Only  when  the  curve  has  been  de- 
scribed are  the  boards  secured  together  and  sawed  off  at  the 
ends  and  along  the  curve.  To  prepare  an  elliptical  form  or 
curve,  the  boards  are  placed  together  as  in  Fig.  148,  and 
upon  these  a  cross  forming  right  angles  is  placed,  and  upon 
the  strips  forming  the  cross  lines  are  drawn  intersecting  each 
other,  as  in  Fig.  148  at  C.  From  the  point  of  intersection, 
half  the  height  of  the  tunnel  is  marked  off  at  A  and  B,  also 
half  the  width  on  the  other  arms  at  D  and  E,  remembering 
that  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  thickness  of  the  shield. 
A  B  now  represents  the  greater  and  D  E  the  smaller  axis  of 
the  ellipse.  Half  the  smaller  axis  is  measured  off  from  C  on 
the  larger  axis  at  F  and  Gr,  then  these  points  constitute  the 
foci  of  the  ellipse.  Into  these  points  nails  are  driven.  Now 
if  the  pencil,  or  scribing  point,  be  held  at  D,  and  a  cord  or 
string  passed  tightly  around  the  pencil  and  the  two  nails,  and 
tied,  then  by  moving  the  pencil  around  either  to  the  right  or 
left,  we  shall  have  the  ellipse  of  the  Fig.  148.  The  length  of 
the  axis  in  elliptical  vaults  or  tunnels  should  depend,  not  sim- 
ply upon  the  space  of  the  tunnel,  but  also  upon  the  pressure 
the  walls  must  sustain.  Should  the  main  pressure  be  from 
above,  the  minor  axis  is  shortened  ;  if  the  pressure  comes  from 
the  sides,  it  is  lengthened.  But  it  should  never  be  shorter 
than  the  major  axis. 

Fig.  149  represents  the  manner  of  constructing  the  egg- 
shape  pattern.  Upon  the  frame  represented  by  dotted  lines  a 
22 


338  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

cross  forming  right  angles  is  placed,  furnished  with  lines  as 
already  mentioned ;  from  the  point  of  intersection  of  these 
lines,  (7,  half  of  the  width  of  the  tunnel  is  measured  off 
toward  A  and  B  and  also  toward  D,  and  with  this  radius  the 
lower  semicircle  A  D  B  is  described.  Through  E  and  B  in- 
definite lines  are  drawn.  Make  E  C  equal  to  A  C  and  through 
E  draw  lines  of  indefinite  length,  A  E  and  B  E,  then,  using 
A  B  as  centres  with  a  radius  equal  to  the  entire  width  of  the 
tunnel,  describe  curves  A  F  and  B  G,  and  finally  with  E  F  or 
E  G  as  radius  describe  the  curve  G  F.  The  pieces  of  the  ellip- 
tical or  oval  forms  are  securely  nailed  together  and  fastened 
with  laths  or  strips  across  the  corners. 

For  the  construction  of  an  arched  tunnel,  a  number  of  pat- 
terns must  be  had  in  readiness,  but  if  the  tunnel  is  long  the 
first  used  may  be  taken  away  and  applied  for  the  continuation 
as  soon  as  the  wall  is  sufficiently  dry.  The  forms  are  placed 
at  intervals  of  from  two  to  six  feet,  upon  wooden  tressels  (as 
in  Fig.  150)  or  upon  the  rock  bed.  The  long  timbers  A  A 
are  placed  upon  the  supports  S  S  of  a  frame  in  such  a  manner 
that  their  upper  faces  will  be  in  a  line  passing  horizontally 
along  the  gallery  and  against  the  wall  to  bear  up  the  lower 
edge  of  the  form,  and  may  be  supported  by  tressels  as  in  Fig. 
150,  or  by  posts  as  in  Fig.  151. 

After  placing  the  forms  as  above  described,  a  shield  or  lin- 
ing is  nailed  upon  them.  (See  Fig.  152.) 

The  building  of  the  arched  wall  is  begun  by  preparing  the 
bedding.  To  give  to  this  a  proper  direction,  a  line  is  stretched 
along  the  side  of  the  gallery  and  also  one  crosswise  in  direc- 
tion of  the  radii  of  the  arch,  and  in  accordance  with  these 
lines  the  bed  is  hewn  out.  When  the  rests,  or  beddings,  are 
prepared  of  masonry,  the  ground  must  be  level,  and  the  stones 


FIG.  150. 


FIG.  152. 


FIG.  154. 


PLATE  XXXII. 
FIG.  151. 


FIG.  1">3. 


FIG.  1"5. 


To  face  page  338. 


MASONRY.  339 

laid  level,  as  shown  in  Fig.  153.  From  both  these  beds  the 
arch  is  begun  at  the  same  time.  Upon  the  form,  or  wooden 
pattern,  stone  upon  stone  fitted  together  by  slight  taps  of  the 
hammer  are  laid,  and  when  they  come  near  enough  to  each 
other  the  wedge-shaped  keystone  is  driven  in  by  interposing 
a  piece  of  wood  between  it  and  the  hammer,  lest  the  stone  be 
broken  by  the  hammer.  At  the  beginning  the  arched  wall  is 
made  a  little  thicker  than  at  the  top,  the  interstices  are  finally 
filled  with  little  rocks,  and  the  space  above  the  masonry  filled 
in.  When  the  work  on  the  arch  has  to  be  interrupted  before 
it  is  completed,  segments  are  wedged  apart,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
154,  by  posts,  or,  if  the  segments  are  near  each  other,  by  a 
piece  of  wood,  as  in  Fig.  155.  If  water  is  found  behind  the 
wall,  then  holes  are  let  into  the  wall  at  proper  intervals  to 
draw  it  off. 

In  mines,  dry  walls  of  greater  thickness  are  preferred  to 
mortar  walls,  because  the  oozing  water  dissolves  the  mortar 
and  loosens  the  walls,  whilst  in  a  dry  wall  the  water  can  easily 
,run  off,  and  a  sediment  may  collect  on  the  wall  which  may 
help  to  strengthen  it. 

Arched  walls  are  protected  against  water  by  putting  a  coat- 
ing of  clay  over  them.  (Figs.  156,  157.) 

When  a  gallery  or  drift  is  to  be  arched  in,  the  nature  of 
the  arch  will  depend  upon  whether  a  partial  or  entire  arch  is 
demanded.  Should  only  the  roof  need  support,  a  short,  low 
arch  (Fig.  156),  or  a  semicircle  (Fig.  157),  is  adopted,  the  beds 
of  which  are  hewn  in  the  solid  rock.  When  the  roof  and  one 
side  only  require  protection,  and  the  lateral  pressure  is  slight, 
then  a  level  wall  is  built  upon  the  side,  and  upon  it  a  partial 
arch.  (Fig.  158.) 

When  the  pressure  is  great  upon  one  side,  a  half  vault  is 


340  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

erected.  (Fig.  159.)  Should  both  sides  of  the  roof  need  pro- 
tection, then,  if  the  pressure  upon  the  two  sides  is  not  too 
great,  Fig.  160  represents  the  method.  If  the  pressure  upon 
the  sides  is  very  great,  Fig.  161  is  a  representation  of  the 
proper  method.  All  these  methods  presuppose  that  the  floor 
is  firm.  Should  the  floor  also  need  masonry,  it  receives  an 
oval  form,  as  in  Figs.  162,  163.  That  represented  by  Fig. 
163  is  preferred  where  much  water  is  to  be  drained  off. 

In  main  galleries,  or  adits,  it  is  customary  to  build  a  drain- 
age canal  or  sluice.  Should  the  floor  be  firm,  the  canal  as- 
sumes the  form  in  Fig.  164.  Should  it  be  unsuitable  for 
draining,  an  inverted  arch  is  used,  as  shown  in  Fig.  165,  or  a 
close  arch  forming  a  pipe,  as  in  Fig.  166.  In  the  latter  case 
holes  are  left  at  suitable  distances  over  the  upper  side,  so  that 
the  pipe  may  be  cleared  in  case  of  stoppage.  The  bricks  of 
all  such  arches  must  be  securely  filled  in,  or  coated  with  clay, 
and  upon  them  the  tramway  is  laid.  When  water  comes  from 
the  ceiling  or  the  sides,  it  is  led  by  means  of  pipes  through 
openings  in  the  arch  into  the  canal. 

The  joists  for  the  tramway,  when  these  cannot  be  let  into 
the  native  rock  in  the  sides,  are  either  walled  in,  as  in  Fig. 

167,  or  openings  are  left  at  proper  distances  for  their  recep- 
tion, leaving  larger  openings  upon  one  side  of  the  gallery  to 
provide  for  the  putting  in  of  new  joists  in  case  of  decay.     The 
floor  joists  may  also  be  placed  upon  benches,  as  shown  in  Fig. 

168,  or,  finally,  they  may  be  walled  into  the  rubbish,  as  in 
Fig.  166. 

MASONRY  FOR  SHAFTS. 

The  walling  up  of  shafts  depends,  in  its  main  features,  upon 
the  same  rules  as  the  timbering.  The  shafts,  according  to  the 


FIG.  156. 


PLATE  XXXIII. 
FIG.  157. 


FIG.  158. 


FIG.  160. 


FIG.  159. 


FIG.  161. 


To  face  page  340. 


FIG.  162. 


PLATE  XXXIV. 
FIG.  163. 


FIG.  165. 


FIG.  166. 


FIG.  167. 


To  face  page  340. 


FIG.  168. 


PLATE  XXXV. 
FIG.  169. 


FIG.  170. 


FIG,  171. 


To  face  page  340. 


MASONRY    FOR    SHAFTS.  341 

firmness  of  rock,  are  either  walled  in  entirely,  or  only  par- 
tially. 

In  perpendicular  shafts  a  temporary  timbering  precedes  the 
masonry.  The  walls  are  built  from  below  upwards,  and  rest, 
like  a  foundation  framing,  upon  main  arches  corresponding 
to  the  long  pieces  of  a  frame  as  represented  in  Figs.  169  .and 
170,  at  L,  and  upon  shorter  arches  corresponding  to  the  short 
beams  of  the  foundation  frame,  as  at  T  T,  Fig.  170. 

These  arches  are  put  at  intervals  from  two  to  four  fathoms 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  rock,  and  rest,  in  all  cases, 
upon  deep  and  sufficiently  firm  bedding.  The  main  arches 
need  a  thickness  of  from  three  to  four  feet ;  upon  them  the 
level  wall  M  is  erected.  (Fig.  169.) 

The  partition  walls,  8  S  are  also  furnished  with  inserted 
arches  R  R,  Fig.  169,  which  walls  are  built  up  along  with 
the  main  walls  to  the  thickness  of  from  one-and-a-half  to  two 
feet.  These  partition  walls  are  also  furnished  with  openings 
.into  each  other,  provided  with  frames  as  shown  in  Fig.  130, 
and  arched  over. 

In  swamp  lands,  if  shafts  are  to  be  masoned,  the  following 
method  is  used  :  A  continuous  or  close  wall  is  placed  upon  a 
strong  oak  frame  until  it  sinks  by  its  own  weight  into  the 
soft  soil.  The  inclosed  mass  is  taken  out  and  the  wall  built 
up  higher. 

The  masonry  of  inclined  shafts  or  slopes  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  galleries,  if  the  inclination  be  slight,  but  approaches 
more  to  the  masonry  of  perpendicular  shafts  if  the  inclination 
be  steep.  The  partition  walls  serve  as  arch  beds  (see  Fig. 
171),  and  the  openings  into  the  galleries  are  arched  over  as  in 
perpendicular  shafts.  If  the  underlying  rock  is  firm,  the 
foundation  trenches  are  hewn  in  it  for  the  main  and  partition 


342  MINERALS,  MINES,  AND    MINING. 

walls.  In  these  trenches  the  level  walls  are  founded,  and 
upon  these  the  arches  are  placed  according  to  the  number  of 
the  divisions.  Should  the  underlying  rock  be  unstable,  then 
it  is  covered  with  masonry,  and  the  other  walls  are  placed 
upon  it. 

Filling  rooms  and  other  extended  spaces,  if  they  are  to  be 
walled,  should  be  secured  by  arches ;  and  the  strength  of  such 
arches  should  correspond  to  the  pressure,  and  they  must  rest 
upon  deep  and  perfectly  firm  beds. 

When  water  is  found  at  the  side  of  the  shafts  it  is  collected 
behind  the  walls  and  led  through  openings  into  pipes. 


APPENDIX. 


SINKING  ARTESIAN  WELLS. 


APPARATUS    FOR    SINKING  ARTESIAN    WELLS. 

THE  derricks  used  for  sinking  wells  will  vary  in  height  with 
the  general  habits  and  ideas  of  the  workmen.  Some  of  the 
deepest  wells  have  been  dug  with  derricks  only  30  or  40  feet 
in  height.  In  the  gas  wells  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  or  elsewhere,  it 
is  customary  to  erect  derricks  60  to  70  feet  in  height,  which  in 
many  cases  are  used  only  ten  or  twelve  days,  and  then  taken 
down.  Hence  there  is  an  unnecessary  loss  of  time  and  timber. 

Mr.  W.  Blasdell,  of  Philadelphia,  who  has  been  engaged  in 
this  work  for  many  years,  writes  us  (1888)  that  "  the  tools  used 
at  the  present  time  I  believe  to  be  about  one-third  heavier 
than  those  enumerated  in  the  catalogues  of  Morris,  Tasker  & 
Co.,  of  1874 ;"  but  in  cases  where  only  trial-borings  are  made, 
or  temporary  ones,  or  those  of  no  great  depths,  about  the  same 
tools  and  sizes  as  those  of  former  use  may  be  employed. 

In  the  larger  size  derricks,  60  to  70  feet,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  use  any  heavy  timber  for  the  upper  parts.  In  many  wells, 
in  various  places,  which  have  been  worked  successfully  under 
our  own  observation,  derricks  70  feet  high  and  20  feet  spread 
at  the  base  have  been  composed  of  timber  no  larger  than  two 
inches  by  ten  inches  placed  together  on  their  long  edges,  making 
one  side  twelve  inches  wide,  and  nailed  properly.  These  are 
laid  up  as  the  maker  ascends,  keeping  the  sloping  pitch  at 

(343) 


344  APPENDIX. 

proper  angle  and  bracing  with  planks  on  the  outside  as  he 
goes  up.  All  the  safety  and  strength  depend  upon  the  brac- 
ing, generally  every  ten  feet.  The  shaking  and  trembling  of 
the  derrick  on  letting  the  drill  down  rapidly  into  the  well 
never  do  any  injury  to  the  derrick.  The  only  precaution 
necessary  is  that  the  workman  always  should  be  sure  that  the 
"  up  and  down  "  scantlings  rest  at  their  ends  securely  upon 
one  another,  and  that  the  foundation  is  solid  and  perfectly 
immovable  before  any  work  is  begun.  These  derricks  are 
"  four  square,"  having  four-corner  inclining  posts  all  ap- 
proaching each  other  evenly  to  the  top,  which  is  about  three 
feet  square,  and  provided  with  sufficiently  heavy  timber  to 
sustain  the  weight  of  the  rope,  drills,  and  other  apparatus, 
frequently  weighing  several  tons. 

Below  we  give  the  method  adopted  by  Mr.  Blasdell : — 
The  derrick  used  by  myself  in  sinking  artesian  wells  through 
soil,  clays,  and  the  like,  by  boring,  is  about  33  feet  high  by 
some  3J  or  4  feet  wide.  It  is  often  made  of  spruce  or  pine 
spars  8  inches  at  the  butt  by  some  4J  inches  at  the  top 
[hewed] ,  or  of  some  light  sawed  timber  nearly  of  that  propor- 
tion. They  are  ceoss-braced  for  strength,  and  slats  nailed  or 
screwed  on  for  going  up  or  down.  The  foot-piece  [opening 
the  two  timbers  or  scantling  of  this  kind  of  derrick  at  the 
base]  will  be  10  feet  long,  and  head-piece  4  feet  long,  both 
mortised,  and  the  derrick  keyed  into  them.  The  derrick  of 
two  timbers  is  held  up  by  two  poles,  or  legs,  reaching  nearly  to 
the  top  of  the  derrick  and  against  two  "chocks"  or  pieces 
bolted  on  either  side  of  the  derrick,  and  then  held  by  an  iron 
strap  or  rope  lashing.  When  the  derrick  is  up,  the  distance 
between  the  legs  and  the  foot-piece  of  the  derrick  is  about  10 
feet,  making  about  a  square,  thus  giving  room  to  turn  the 
yoke  or  wrench  handle  in  turning  the  auger  or  bit  on  the 
stage,  which  is  about  8  feet  above  the  ground.  To  make  the 
stage  connect  by  bolts  or  rope  lashings,  place  two  scantlings 
on  either  side  about  8  feet  up  and  use  planks  for  floorings. 
Double  gearing  is  used  for  hoisting  with  a  6-inch  pinion-wheel 


SINKING    ARTESIAN    WELLS.  345 

and  24-inch  cog-wheel,  with  a  9-inch  wooden  drum  on  the 
shaft  of  the  cog-wheel  for  the  hoisting  rope.  A  single  4J-inch 
rope  is  used  for  the  hoisting  fall  attached  to  the  wooden  drum, 
then  up  and  passing  through  the  iron  "  gin-wheel  "  or  pulley 
at  the  head  of  the  derrick,  then  down  to  the  rods  or  augers. 
Attached  to  the  fall  is  an  iron  "  swivel-hook,"  made  flat  so  as 
to  hook  in  the  eye  of  the  rods  or  augers,  for  hoisting  them  ; 
the  socket,  as  seen  in  some  catalogues  (No.  49,  of  Morris, 
Tasker  &  Co.,  10th  edition),  is  not  used  by  some  workers. 
The  fall  and  hook  are  used  for  hoisting  the  levers  to  shove 
the  pipe  [or  tubing]  — not  using  the  small  derrick  as  some- 
times depicted.  The  bearings  and  shaft  of  the  pinion-wheel 
should  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  derrick  that  the  drum  or 
cog-wheel  shaft  is,  and  the  crank  on  the  upper  or  pinion-wheel 
shaft.  There  is  an  error  in  the  drawing  in  this  respect  in  one 
of  the  catalogues  most  extensively  circulated. 

The  pipes,  or  tubing,  generally  used  in  sinking  artesian 
wells  are  sometimes  of  cast-iron,  and  may  be  as  large  as  8,  12, 
and  even  20  inches  calibre,  in  sections  of  8  and  10  feet,  con- 
nected together  with  wrought-iron  bands  heated  and  shrunk 
on.  The  metal  of  the  pipe  is  thickened  at  the  joint,  making 
the  calibre  a  little  smaller,  then  the  outside  of  the  pipe  is 
turned  down  in  a  lathe  so  as  to  make  the  band  flush  with  the 
outside  of  the  pipe  after  it  is  shrunk  on.  The  end  turned 
down  on  the  pipe  is  from  3  to  4  inches  in  length  and  depth 
to  correspond  with  the  thickness  of  the  band,  which  is  usually 
from  J  inch  to  f  inch  thick.  The  ends  of  the  pipe  butt  to- 
gether, one  resting  on  the  other ;  the  bands  should  be  a  little 
narrower  than  the  turned  ends  of  the  pipe,  so  that  the  pipes 
will  closely  rest  together. 

To  connect  the  pipes  together  in  boring  an  artesian  well, 
first  shove  the  pipe  down  as  far  as  the  levers  will  carry  it, 
which  will  leave  it  above  ground  some  2  or  3  feet,  then  sling 
the  pipe  that  you  wish  to  connect  and  raise  with  the  fall,  and 
let  it  hang  immediately  over  the  lower  pipe.  The  band  must 
now  be  heated  red  hot  in  a  sheet-iron  furnace,  with  a  wood 


346  APPENDIX. 

fire  (or  in  any  similar  way),  and  with  a  pair  of  tongs  place 
the  band  on  the  first  pipe,  then  lower  the  other  pipe  into  the 
band,  and  when  the  band  cools  it  will  contract  and  make  a 
tight  joint.  The  band  when  cold  should  be  a  little  smaller 
than  the  turned  ends  of  the  pipe ;  the  heating  expands  the 
band,  which  should  be  put  on  the  pipe  quickly  in  order  to 
give  success.  The  first,  or  bottom  pipe,  has  a  sharp  iron  or 
steel  cutting  band  on  the  lower  end  to  cut  its  way  down  as  the 
boring  is  done  through  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  In  some  cases 
the  reamer,  or  com  bination  auger,  is  used  to  enlarge  the  hole, 
as  in  very  stiff  clays. 

The  "twist"  or  "  spiral  auger"  is  found  to  work  better  than 
any  other.  Four  to  six  twists  are  commonly  used  in  the  full 
length,  5  feet,  made  of  1 J  inch  iron  steel  pointed,  or  of  all 
steel  one  inch  square. 

Rods  used  ar£  in  15  feet  sections,  1J  inches  square.  Iron 
with  male  and  female  socket  joints,  held  with  a  key  and  a 
clasp,  to  cover  and  hold  the  key  in  its  place. 

The  sand  pump  is  made  of  sheet  iron  from  2  to  3  feet  in 
length,  of  a  size  loosely  to  fit  inside  the  pipe  ;  it  is  furnished 
with  a  single  leather  valve  at  the  lower  end,  hinged  and  rest- 
ing on  an  iron  ring  J  to  f  of  an  inch  thick  as  a  base.  This 
ring  is  from  1  to  2  inches  deep,  beveled  thin  at  the  lower  edge 
and  riveted  in  the  lower  end  of  the  sand  pump.  The  leather 
valve  is  strengthened  by  thin  iron  plates  riveted  on  either  side 
of  it.  The  pump  is  used  for  pumping  sand  and  gravel,  and 
sometimes  stone  can  be  pumped  up  of  a  size  as  large  as  the 
pump  will  admit.  To  use  the  pump,  attach  a  single  line  to 
the  bail  and  lower  it  into  the  well  pipe  to  the  bottom  ;  then 
slowly  draw  it  up  some  12  or  16  inches,  and  let  it  drop 
quickly.  Keep  repeating  until  it  is  well  charged,  then  draw 
up  and  empty. 

The  pump  being  nearly  as  large  as  the  calibre  of  the 
artesian  pipe,  drawing  it  up  in  the  water  causes  a  vacuum, 
and  the  sand  and  debris  follow  the  pump  up  and  by  dropping 
the  pump  quickly  the  valve  opens  inside,  and  the  pump  be- 


SINKING    ARTESIAN    WELLS.  347 

ing  heavier  than  the  floating  material  drops  quicker  and  shuts 
over  it,  and  by  raising  the  pump  the  valve  closes  and  retains 
a  portion  each  time. 

There  must  be  water  in  the  well  to  cover  the  sand-pump, 
in  order  that  it  shall  work.  If  the  well  will  not  afford  the 
water,  it  can  be  turned  in.  A  single  "  gin  wheel"  or  pulley- 
block  is  used  at  the  head  of  the  derrick  for  the  sand  pump 
rope. 

In  boring  or  sinking  tubing  or  pipe,  the  work  is  generally 
done  by  man-power.  To  turn  the  auger,  a  lever,  or  yoke  of 
iron,  some  4  feet  long,  is  attached  to  the  rods  by  a  "  set-screw" 
and  turned  by  two  or  three  men  working  on  the  elevated 
stage.  When  the  auger  is  full,  draw  up,  and  disconnect  the 
rack  rod  at  the  joint.  In  order  to  hold  the  rods  while  dis- 
connecting them,  let  the  shoulders  near  the  end  of  the  rod 
(male  end)  rest  on  the  crotch  bar  (or  fork,  No.  33,  M.  T.  & 
Co.'s  cat.,  10th  ed.),  which  is  placed  on  and  held  up  by  the 
stage,  or  in  case  the  pipe  should  be  higher  than  the  stage  then 
let  the  fork  rest  on  the  top  of  the  pipe. 

Levers  used  to  force  the  pipe  down  are  usually  about  20  feet 
in  length,  1  foot  in  diameter,  of  round,  or  square  timber.  In 
the  center  of  them  15  inches  from  the  end  there  is  a  slot  If 
inches  wide,  9  inches  in  length  at  the  top,  and  4  inches  at  the 
bottom,  cut  through  them  for  the  lever  irons  to  work  in. 

The  lever  iron  is  17  inches  in  length,  4  inches  wide,  and  1 
inch  thick.  At  the  top  end  there  is  a  round  hole  If  inches 
for  a  shackle  pin,  so  as  to  connect  and  shackle  it  to  the  side 
chains  to  draw  or  force  the  pipe  down.  At  the  lower  end 
there  is  a  square  and  deep  hole  for  a  key  to  hold  it,  that  it 
may  not  pull  through  the  slot  in  the  levers.  By  cutting  the 
slot  on  the  top  of  the  lever  it  will  admit  of  raising  the  lever  to 
an  angle  sufficient  to  shove  the  pipe.  One  foot  from  the  end 
of  the  lever  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  pin  projecting  up  some  6 
inches  to  prevent  the  lever  slipping  under  the  fulcrum  stick 
when  the  former  is  raised  up  to  shove  the  pipe.  The  two  ful- 
crum chains  should  each  be  about  17  feet  in  length,  and  made 


348  APPENDIX. 

of  iron  f  inch  in  diameter.  The  two  side  chains  should  be  12 
feet  long,  each  made  of  1J  inch  iron  and  the  link  5  or  6 
inches  in  length  to  admit  of  a  heavy  shackle  to  attach  them 
to  the  lever  irons.  The  bottom,  or  lower  fulcrum  stick,  should 
be  10  or  12  feet  in  length  by  some  12  or  14  inches  on  the 
face,  and  8  or  10  inches  thick ;  a  wide-faced  one  is  better  for 
holding.  The  top  fulcrum  should  be  round,  of  some  10 
inches  in  diameter  and  6  feet  in  length.  In  the  "  combina- 
tion auger,"  there  are  two  steel  cutters  screwed  on  the  bottom 
plate.  So  by  turning  the  auger  ahead  they  will  open  and  cut 
larger  than  the  pipe,  and  by  turning  back  they  close  up  so 
that  it  can  be  withdrawn. 

Valve  sockets,  or  "  catch-alls,"  are  to  catch  the  rods,  when  by 
accident  they  become  disconnected.  Steel  dogs,  of  different 
sizes,  are  hinged  to  them  which  will  catch  by  drawing  up  and 
hold  the  rod. 

The  "  catch-all"  for  hauling  pipe  has  a  dog,  a  little  longer 
than  the  calibre  of  the  pipe,  hinged  to  the  main  stem.  So 
that  when  drawing  up,  the  heel  slips  a  little,  and  the  point 
being  steel  and  sharp  catches  and  thus  holds  the  pipe  to  draw 
it  out.  Sometimes  the  connecting  bands  adhere  fast  enough 
to  draw  the  pipes  with  chains  made  fast  to  the  top  pipe. 

The  "  wrench  bar"  is  used  temporarily  to  turn  the  rods  in 
boring  instead  of  using  the  wrench  handle. 

The  "  boulder-cracker"  is  raised  with  a  rope  and  dropped  to 
break  stone,  but  it  is  not  very  effective.  A  pointed  chisel 
made  to  connect  the  rods  and  all  raised  and  dropped  together 
is  preferable. 

The  "  spring  catch"  for  hauling  pipe,  also  "  hooks,"  are 
seldom  used,  nor  is  the  "  lifter." 

A  line  should  be  attached  to  the  "catch-all,"  to  regulate  and 
prevent  catching  wrhere  not  wanted. 

TO  COMMENCE  AN  ARTESIAN  WELL. 

Put  the  derrick  up,  then  commence  in  front  4  feet  from  the 
base  of  the  derrick  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the  derrick  legs, 


TO    COMMENCE    AN    ARTESIAN    WELL.  349 

and  dig  a  trench  18  inches  wide,  10  feet  long  and  5  feet  deep 
for  the  bottom  fulcrum  stick.  Then  lower  the  centre,  or 
bight,  of  the  two  fulcrum  chains  in  the  trench  some  4  feet 
apart,  allowing  the  two  ends  of  each  chain  to  extend  a  few 
feet  above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  then  place  the  fulcrum 
stick  in  the  trench  on  top  of  the  chains  and  secure  it  by  plac- 
ing cross  pieces  of  plank  or  small  timber,  allowing  each  end  to 
penetrate  the  earth  on  the  sides  of  the  trench  for  holding. 
Then  fill  the  trench  up  on  top  of  the  stick  with  the  earth 
which  was  excavated,  and  tamp  all  solidly,  thus  securing  the 
stick  for  leverage  power  in  shoving  the  pipe  down.  We  next 
place  two  blocks  of  timber  (immediately  over  the  filled  up 
trench),  some  five  feet  apart,  and  lay  the  top  fulcrum  stick  on 
the  blocks,  and  secure  by  passing  the  ends  of  the  fulcrum 
chains  over  it,  and  shackling  together.  Thus  a  complete  ful- 
crum power  may  be  obtained  for  the  levers  in  shoving,  or 
forcing  the  pipe  into  the  earth.  The  pipe  is  then  placed  im- 
mediately in  front  of  the  centre  of  the  fulcrum  sticks,  and  the 
boring  commenced  through  the  inside  calibre  of  the  pipe,  and 
continued  from  one  to  two  feet  below  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  ; 
then  the  shoving  band  is  placed  on  the  pipe.  The  shoving 
chains,  or  side  chains,  hung  on  the  side  hooks  which  are 
attached  to  the  shoving  band  on  either  side,  and  the  ends  of 
the  levers  are  placed  under  the  top  fulcrum  stick,  one  on 
either  side  of  the  pipe.  The  opposite  ends  are  now  raised  up, 
by  the  derrick,  some  seven  or  eight  feet  in  height,  and  the 
side  chains  shackled  to  the  lever  irons,  when  one  link,  or  five 
or  six  inches,  are  gained  at  each  time  of  raising  the  levers, 
and  thus  the  pipe  is  drawn,  or  forced,  down  into  the  earth.  If 
there  is  too  much  frictional  resistance  against  the  pipe  for  the 
weight  of  the  levers  to  force  it  down,  weights  must  be  applied 
to  the  ends  of  the  levers,  which  will  give  a  power  of  some 
fifteen  tons  pressure.  In  boring  through  clay,  loam,  or  marl, 
only  use  the  spiral  auger,  which  adheres  to  it  and  when  full 
it  may  be  drawn  up  and  cleaned.  In  drawing  the  auger  up 
the  rods  have  to  be  disconnected  at  the  joints  one  at  a  time. 


350  APPENDIX. 

When  sand,  gravel,  or  small  stone  is  reached,  the  sand 
pump  is  used  to  take  it  out,  keeping  the  leverage  power  on  at 
the  same  time  to  force  the  pipe  down.  When  stone,  or  large 
boulders  are  encountered,  it  is  found  very  difficult  and  some- 
times impossible  to  shove  the  pipe.  In  such  cases  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  use  a  heavy  drill,  or  boulder-cracker,  as  it  is  called, 
and  try  to  break  or  displace  them.  Soft  stone,  such  as  slate, 
or  sandstone,  can  be  broken  ;  but  if  there  is  a  hard  stone 
which  is  almost  or  actually  impossible  to  break,  then  the 
well  digging  has  to  stop,  and  the  pipe  be  drawn  and  changed 
to  some  other  point. 

Sometimes  a  boulder-catcher,  or  "  lazy  tongs,"  can  be  used 
to  advantage  in  picking  up  stone,  or  boulders. 

A  larger  supply,  and  better  water,  are  usually  obtained 
after  passing  through  good  pure  clay.  In  all  cases  in  order 
to  obtain  a  supply  of  water  it  is  necessary  to  reach  a  water- 
bearing stratum  of  coarse  sand,  gravel,  pebbles,  or  a  bed  of 
small  stone,  or  boulders,  which  are  generally  intermixed 
more  or  less  with  sand  or  gravel.  It  is  necessary  to  carry  the 
pipe  a  few  feet  into  the  water-bearing  stratum,  in  order  that 
the  water  shall  not  be  interfered  with  from  washings  of  the 
above  clay  stratum.  It  is  very  seldom  that  a  supply  of  water 
can  be  obtained  in  fine  sand,  for  the  simple  reason  that 
pumping  the  head  of  water  down  will  cause  the  sand  to  rise 
in  the  pipe  with  the  water,  and  very  quickly  choke  off  the 
supply. 

Most  of  the  wells  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia  are 
through  soil  and  the  water  obtained  in  a  gravel  stratum ; 
patent  flush  pipes,  or  those  which  have  no  ridge  on  the  out- 
side, are  used  of  8,  12,  and  20  inches  calibre.  In  some  cases 
where  water  is  not  obtained  and-  the  rock  reached,  a  drill  is 
used  cutting  a  hole  from  4  to  12  inches  calibre,  and  the  water 
is  obtained  from  the  fissures  and  crevices. 

Sometimes  the  common  mining  tools,  spring-pole  and  man- 
power, may  be  employed  in  drilling  the  rock,  and  sometimes 
the  oil-well  tools,  with  walking-beam  and  steam  power,  must 
be  resorted  to. 


GAS    AND    OIL    WELLS.  351 

In  using  the  spring-pole  for  mining  purposes,  or  shallow 
wells  for  water,  sometimes  the  solid  iron  rods  with  screw 
joint  are  sufficient,  and  sometimes  extra  heavy  IJ-inch  gas 
pipe  rods,  and  sometimes  wooden  rods  with  strap  screw 
joints.  In  most  of  the  salt  wells  which  were  drilled  in 
former  times,  and  some  which  went  down  several  hundred 
or  a  thousand  feet,  the  spring-pole  with  wooden  rods  and 
strap  joints  was  successfully  employed. 

OIL  AND  GAS  WELLS. 

To  sink  an  oil  or  gas  well  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  steam- 
engine  from  8  to  12  horse-power,  a  derrick  45  feet  high,  with 
a  base  of  15  feet,  with  a  "  sampson  post "  8  or  10  feet  high  for 
the  walking-beam,  which  must  be  20  to  30  feet  in  length,  and 
other  tools  and  fixtures  as  enumerated  in  the  usual  catalogues 
of  such  machinery. 

To  start  a  well  where  the  soil  overlies  the  rock,  either  the 
plan  already  described  must  be  used,  or  a  heavy  cast-iron 
driving  pipe  of  5  or  6  inches  calibre  is  driven  to  the  rock  by 
raising  a  heavy  timber  (some  14  inches  square  by  12  or  14 
feet  in  length)  to  the  head  of  the  derrick,  and  letting  it  drop 
upon  an  iron  cap  placed  on  the  top  of  the  pipe.  The  drill  is 
also  used  to  cut  up  the  soil,  or  any  obstructions  which  may 
be  encountered,  and  the  sand  pump  to  take  the  debris  out. 
Where  the  rock  crops  to  the  surface  no  pipe  is  required. 

To  commence  drilling,  first  connect  the  "  auger  stem  "  to 
the  "  centre-bit,"  then  the  "jars"  to  the  auger  stem,  then  the 
"  sinker  bar  "  to  the  jars,  then  the  rope  socket  to  the  sinker 
bar,  then  attach  the  drilling  rope  to  the  rope  socket,  then 
clasp  the  temper-screw  to  the  rope  at  the  point  where  required, 
then  attach  the  temper-screw  to  the  walking-beam.  The  screw 
is  about  3  feet  or  more  in  length,  and  in  starting  should  be 
closely  screwed  up  and  held  with  a  set  screw,  and  as  the  drill 
cuts  its  way  down  to  be  gradually  unscrewed  to  the  end. 

After  about  3  feet  are  drilled  the  centre-bit  is  withdrawn, 
the  sand  pump  put  in,  and  the  debris  pumped  out,  then  "  the 


352  APPENDIX. 

reamer,"  which  is  about  1  inch  larger  than  the  centre-bit,  is  put 
in  and  the  hole  reamed  down  as  far  as  the  centre-bit  has  cut. 

The  reamer  makes  the  hole  round  and  smooth.  Where  the 
centre-bit  is  used  (without  reaming)  for  any  great  distance  the 
hole  becomes  triangular  in  shape.  Generally  the  rock  operated 
in  for  oil  is  slate,  shale,  and  limestone  or  sandstone.  After  a 
well  is  drilled  it  is  then  cased  with  wrought-iron  tube,  or  cas- 
ing, with  a  seed-bag  attached  to  it  to  shut  off  water-veins. 

To  "  seed-bag  "  the  casing  of  a  well,  a  leather  case  like  a  boot- 
leg, some  3  feet  in  length,  is  slipped  over  the  iron  casing  and 
tied  at  the  lower  end  with  a  string.  Then  the  space  between 
the  leather  case  and  iron  casing  is  filled  with  flax-seed,  and 
the  top  end  of  the  leather  case  is  securely  tied  with  a  hemp  cord. 

The  leather  case,  or  seed-bag,  is  somewhat  larger  than  the 
iron  casing,  so  that  when  filled  with  the  seed  it  will  nearly 
fill  the  drill-hole,  a  gauge  being  passed  over  it,  the  size  of  the 
drill-hole,  to  make  it  smooth  and  parallel.  When  the  seeds 
swell  in  the  water  it  will  make  the  space  between  the  well  and 
casing  water-tight,  thus  excluding  the  water-veins  from  the 
oil-veins  while  pumping  or  flowing. 

The  seed-bag  is  put  on  the  casing  so  that  when  put  down 
into  the  well  it  will  be  immediately  above  the  oil- vein. 

In  drawing  the  casing  the  top  string  on  the  bag  breaks  and 
the  bag  turns  inside  out,  discharging  the  seed. 

Formerly  the  wells  drilled  were  from  4  to  5  inches  diame- 
ter, but  many  are  from  6  to  8  inches. 

It  is  probable  that  the  most  of  the  oil  obtained  at  the  pres- 
ent day  is  after  passing  the  third  or  fourth  sand  rock,  formerly 
obtained  under  the  second  sand. 

While  the  drill  is  in  operation,  a  man  turns  the  rope  to 
which  the  tools  are  attached,  forward  several  times,  then  back- 
ward, in  order  to  drill  a  round  hole.* 

*  For  drawings  of  a  complete  derrick  or  carpenter's  rig  see  Brannt — 
Petroleum:  Its  History,  Origin,  Production,  Physical  and  Chemical 
Constitution,  Technology,  Examination  and  Uses;  together  with  the 
Occurrence  and  Uses  of  Natural  Gas.  By  Wm.  T.  Brannt,  Phila. 
Henry  Carey  Baird  &  Co.,  1895. 


INDEX. 


A  CETATE  of  ammonium,  43 
£\         sodium,  42 
Acetic  acid,  36 
Acid,  acetic,  36 

fuming  nitric,  preparation  of,  60,  61 
hydrochloric,  33,  34 
molybdic,  37 
nitric,  34 

precaution  in  using,  92 
test  of,  for  chlorine,  91 
oxalic,  36 
succinic,  36 
sulphuric,  34,  35 

parting  of  gold  by  means  of,  83 
sulphurous,  37 
tartaric,  36 
titanic,  151-153 

blow-pipe  detection  of,  152 
determination   of,   in    bauxite, 

242 
Adits,  construction  of  a  drainage  canal 

or  sluice  in.  340 
Africa,  diamond  fields  of,  260 
Alabama  bauxite,  analyses  of,  239 
gold,  fineness  of  76 
mining  of  bauxite  in,  236,  237 
Alaska,  mineral  belt  developed  in,  70,  71 

production  of  gold  in,  69,  70 
Alcohol,  28,  29 

Alloy  of  gold,  silver  and  copper,  precau- 
tion in  dissolving  an,  91 
Alloys,  gold,  methods  of  treating,  78-83 
manganese,  203 
of  aluminium,  248 
of  nickel,  116,  117 
Alumina,   38 

method  of  reducing,  244-248 
preparation  of,  from  bauxite,  241 
Aluminite,  244 
Aluminium,  233-252 
alloys  of,  248 
commercial  forms  of,  249 
conductivity  of  heat  of,  234 
development  of  electro-metallurgy, 

due  to  attempts  to  produce,  235 
early  production  of,  by  the  aid  of  the 

electric  current,  244 
electric  conductivity  of,  234 


Aluminium,  melting-point  of,  233 

Minet's  process  for  producing,  244, 

245 

ores  of,  235-244 

output  of,  by  the    Pittsburgh   Re- 
duction Co.,  246 
polarity  of,  234 

process  of  manufacture  of,  by  the 
Pittsburgh    Redaction    Co.,  245- 
248 
product   of,  in   the   United   States, 

248,  249 

properties  of,  233 
specific  gravity  of,  233 

heat  of,  233,  234 
world's  product  of,  249 
American      Manganese     Co.,     Limited, 
method   of  mining   adopted   by   the, 
199,  200 
Ammonia,  38 

Ammonium,  acetate  of,  43 
chloride  of,  43 
hydrosulphide  of,  43 
molybdate  of,  43 
neutral  succinate  of,  43,  44 
oxalate  of,  43 
Analysis  by  difference,  159 

of  the  ores  of  platinum,  210 
quantitative,   analytical  scales  forr 

50 

Antimonial  silver,  96 
Antimony,  221-225 

associations  of,  221 

crocus  of,  223 

estimation  of,  223-225 

extraction  of,  from  its  ores,  223 

hardness  of,  221 

melting  point  of,  221 

native,  221 

red,  221 

specific  gravity  of,  221 

tetroxide,  composition  of,  224 

to   distinguish   from   bismuth,  224, 

225 

uses  of,  223 
white,  221 
Aqua  regia,  34 
Arch,  curve  of  the,  336 


23 


(353) 


354 


INDEX. 


Arch,  egg-shape  pattern,  construction  of 

the,  337,  338 
height  of  the,  336 
relation  of  length,or  span  and  height 

of  the,  336 
semicircular,    construction    of   the, 

337 

span  of  the,  335,  336 
thickness  of  the,  336 
Arched  tunnel,  construction  of  a,  338 

wall,  building  a,  338,  339 
Arches  in  shafts,  construction  of,  341 
Argentite,  97 
Arizona,  argentiferous   manganese   ores 

in,  193 

copper  ores,  107,  108 
diamond  found  in,  259 
Arkansas  bauxite,  analyses  of,  240 

bauxites,  238 
Armor  plates  of  nickel-steel,   tests   of, 

116,  117 
Arsenic,  separation  of,  in  the  analysis  of 

zinc  ore,  179-181 
Arsenide  of  nickel,  114 
Arsenides  of  nickel  in  the  United  States, 

120 

Arsenious  sulphide,  composition  of,  181 

Artesian  well,  to  commence  an,  348-351 

wells,  apparatus  for  sinking,  343- 

348 

sinking  of,  343-351 
Atomic  weights,  note  on,  24 

practical   use  of  the   table   of, 

24-26 

table  of,  23 
Assay  furnace,  48-50 
Assays,  water  for,  53,  54 
Auger,  twist  or  spiral,  346 
Auric  sulphide,  72 
Aurous  sulphide,  72 

Australia,    gold    deposited    upon    pipe- 
clay in,  72 

gold,  differences  in,  76 
fineness  of,  77 
melting  the  dross  resulting  from 

the  treatment  of,  82 
mines,  classification  of,  77 
production  of  gold  in,  68,  69 
of  silver  in,  106 

BABBITT  metal,  223 
Banca,  product  of  tin  of,  169 
'Barium,  carbonate  of,  44 
chloride  of,  44 
nitrate  of,  44 
Barytes,  approximating  the  weight  and 

specific  gravity  of,  6,  7 
IBaux,  analyses  of  bauxite  from,  238 
iBauxite,  235-243 


Bauxite,  American  occurrences  of,  236- 

238 

cost  of,  in  Pittsburgh,  243 
desired  element  in,  240,  241 
localities  of,  in  Europe,  236 
method  of  analysis  of,  241-243 
of  Var  and  Ilerault,  236 
Bauxites,  analyses  of,  238-240 
Beaker  glasses,  heating  of,  53 
Bed,  exploration  of  a,  277 

nearly  horizontal,  opening  a,  281 
Beds  and  deposits,  stratified,  preparation 

and  working  of,  292-296 
Bismuth,  225-227 
chief  ore  of,  225 
crystals  of,  225,  226 
detection  of,  226 
hardness  of,  225 
lustre  of,  225 
malleability  of,  225 
melting-point  of,  226 
metallic,  use  of,  227 
occurrence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

227 

salt,  blowpipe  detection  of  a,  226,  227 
separation  of  silver  from,  104 
silver,  96 

specific  gravity  of,  225 
streak  and  color  of,  225 
to  distinguish  antimony  from,  224, 

225 

yellow  chromate  of,  226 
Black  band  iron  ore,  131 
flux,  39 
Hills,    geological    surroundings    of 

the,   163 
Blasdell,  W..  method  of  sinking  artesian 

wells  adopted  by,  344-348 
on    the    tools  used    in    sinking 

wells,  343 
Blende,  171 

blowpipe  detection  of,  171 
Blowers,  experiments  with,  186,  187 
Blowpipe,  art  of  blowing  with  the.  15,  16 
behavior  of  corundum  under  the,  250 
detection  of  arsenide  of  nickel,  114 
blende,  171 
bismuth  salt,  226,  227 
carbonate   of  zinc,  171, 

172 

cassiterite,  165,  166 
chromite,  228 
cobalt  compounds,  232 
copper,  108,  109 
iron  ores,  132 
manganese,  197,  198 
silicate  of  zinc,  172 
stannite,  166 
stibnite,  221 


INDEX. 


355 


Blowpipe,  detection  of  titanic  acid,  152 
essentials  for  beginning  experiments 

with  the,  14,  15 
experiments   for  practice  with  the, 

16-20 

flame  for,  12 

hints  in  working  with  the,  15 
philosophy  of  the  action  of  the,  11 
practice,  preparation  of  charcoal  for, 

11,  12 

preliminary  practice  with  the,  15-20 
the,  11-15 

Brasque,  definition  of,  60 
Brass,  specific  heat  of,  234 
Braunite,  194 
Break-joint,  334 
Britannia  metal,  223 
Bromine  and  iodine,  31,  32 

manganese  for  the  manufacture  of, 

201 

preparation  of,  32 
Brown  hematite,  129-131 

composition  of,  129,  130 
geologic  position  of,  130 
hardness  of,  129 
impurities  of,  130 
ores,  trial  shafts  in  the,  265 
per  cent,  of  iron  in,  130 
specific  gravity  of,  129 
Borax,  14,  42 

glass  of,  42 

Boulder  cracker,  the,  348 
Buckets,  use  of,  310 
Buddling,  302,  303 
Buhr-stones,  255,  256 

decrease  in  the  use  of,  256 
Building-stones,  determination  of  oxide 
of  manganese  in,  203 

pABELL,  J.  M.,  analysis  of  infusorial  i 
l^     earth  by,  253 

Cadmium ,  separation  of,  in  the  analysis  of  j 
zinc  ore,  179-181  j 
silver  from,  104 
Cages,  construction  of,  317 
Calcium,  chloride  of,  44,  45 
hydrate,  solution  of,  38 
California,  diamonds  found  in,  258,  259 
gold,  diversity  in  the  fineness  of,  75 
melting     the    dross     resulting 

from  the  treatment  of,  82 
native  gold,  average  fineness  of,  75 
platinum  ore,  analysis  of,  205.  206 
production  of  gold  in,  68 
Canada,  nickel  ores  in,  120-122 
Carbonate  of  barium,  44 
potassium,  39 
sodium,  41,  42 
zinc,  170 


Carbonate  of  zinc,  blowpipe  detection  ofr 

171,  172 

Carbonic  acid  gas,  37 
dioxide,  37 

determination  of,  in  iron  oresr 

149-151 
Car,  loaded,  mode  of  preventing  a,  from 

jumping  the  track,  310 
Carpentry,  mining,  321-326 
Cassiterite,  161 

blowpipe  detection  of,  165,  166 
distinction  of  from   brown   garnetr 

165 

tourmaline,  165 

extraction  of,  for  detection,  166,  16T 
localities  of,  in  the  United   Statesr 

162  N 

mineralogical    appearance    of,    164r 

165 

Cast  iron,  use  of,  in  parting  gold,  83-85 
Catch-alls  or  valve  sockets,  348 
Caucasus  manganese  ores,  composition 

of,  193,  194 

Charcoal,  preparation  of,  11,  12 
Chemical  apparatus,   usual,  list  of,  54r 

55 

Chemicals,  usual,  list  of,  55 
Chilian  manganese  ores,  composition  ofr 

194 

Chlorate  of  potassium,  39 
Chloride  of  ammonium,  43 
barium,  44 
calcium,  44,  45 
nickel,  115 
sodium,  41 
Chlorine,  29-31 

apparatus  for  preparing,  29,  30 
gas,  manganese  for  the  production 

of,  201 
Chrome  iron,  227,  228 

ore,  deposits  of,  229 

quantitative    analysis    ofr 

229,  230 
Chromite,  228 

blowpipe  detection  of,  228 

color  of,  228 

hardness  of,  228 

lustre  of,  228 

occurrence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

228 

specific  gravity  of,  228 
streak  of,  228 
treatment  of,  228,  229 
Chromium,  227-230 
Cinnabar,  215 

associations  of  antimony  with,  222 
Clarke,    F.    W.,    comparison    of    nickel 

silicate  minerals  by,  120 
Clay,  boring  through,  349 


356 


INDEX. 


Cleavage,  definition  of,  4 

Climbing  trees,  318 

Coal  beds,  cutting  levels  and  drifts  in, 

295 

slope  in,  275 
mines,  compartments  in  the  shafts 

of,  274 

spontaneous  combustion  in,  296 
weighing  a  lump  of,  without  scales, 

10,  11 
Cobalt,  230-233 

compounds,  blowpipe   detection  of, 

232 

glance,  230 
melting-point  of,  231 
metallic,  preparation  of,  230,  231 

value  of,  232 
occurrence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

231 

ores,  230 

plating  with,  232 

separation  of,  from  nickel,  232,  233 
specific  gravity  of,  231 
use  of,  231 
Coeur  d'Alene  region,  production  of  lead 

in  the,  182 

Coke,  maganiferous,  202 
Colorado,  argentiferous  manganese  ores 

in,  193 
gold  of,  77 

Color,  characteristic  of  manganese,  17 
lead  orange,  16 
of  minerals,  5 

Compounds,  groups  of,  26-28 
Copper,  106-114 

argentiferous,  assay  of,  where  gold 

is  in  association,  103 
assay  of,  by  the  dry  method,  109, 

110 

wet  method,  110  | 
associations  of,  106 
behavior   of,  before   the   blowpipe, 

106 
blowpipe   and    other    detection   of, 

108-113 
detection   of,  in   exceedingly  weak 

solutions,  109 

geological  position  of,  106-108 
hardness  of,  106 
melting  point  of,  106 
-nickel,  114 
occurrence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

106 

ores,  silver  in,  95 
oxide  of,  38,  39 
process   of  separating  silver  from,  ! 

102,  103 
pyrites,  108 
specific  gravity  of,  106 


Copper  sulphides,  decomposition  of,  and 
separation  of  sulphur  from,  110- 
113 

world's  production  of,  113 
Cores,  nests  or  pockets,  preparation  and 

working  of,  300 
Cornwall,  associations  of  tin  in,  162 

mines,  Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  magnetic 

ores  of  the,  127 
occurrence  of  stannite  in,  166 
tin  ores,  per  cent,  of  tin  in,  164 
Corundum  and  emery,  250-252 

product  of,  in  the  United 

States,  251,  252 
associations  of,  250 
behavior  of,  under  the  blowpipe,  250 
hardness  of,  250 
properties  of,  250 
searching  for,  250,  251 
specific  gravity  of,  250 
test  for  the  abrasive  power  of,  251 
use  of,  251 

Cradle  or  rocker,  86,  87 
Crimora  mine,  Augusta  Co.,  Va.,  method 

of  mining  in  the,  199,  200 
Crocus  of  antimony,  223 
Crookes'  process  of  amalgamation,  88 
Cross-work,  working  lodes  by,  290-292 
Crucibles,  platinum,  59,  60 

precaution  in  melting  metals  in,  91, 

92 

Cryolite,  cost  of,  246 
Crystal  forms,  study  of,  21 
Crystals,  forms  of,  2 
Crystallization,  definition  of,  3 
example  of,  2,  3 

illustration  of  the  importance  of,  3,  4 
systems  of,  2 
water  of,  1 7 
Cupel  furnaces,  objectionable  feature  in 

some,  101 
the,  19 
Cupellation,  19,  97 

process  of,  101,  102 

DAKOTA,  occurrence  of  stannite  in, 
166 

tin-ore  in,  163 
Day  frame  for  shafts,  326 
-shaft,  the,  272 

working  or  surface  working,  300-303 
Derricks  for  sinking  wells,  343,  344 
Deposit,  exploration  of  a,  277 

mineral,  division  of  the,  282,  283 
most  important  rule  to  be  observed 
in  opening  or  exploring  a,  277,  278 
nearly  horizontal,  opening  a,  281 
point  of  commencing   the  work  of 
opening  a,  280 


INDEX. 


357 


Deposits  and  beds,  stratified,  preparation 

and  working  of,  292-296 
large  irregular,  opening  of,  281 
mineral,  that  occur  in  larger  masses, 
preparation  and  working  of,  296- 
299 
with  little  or  no  regularity,  method 

of  mining,  297,  298 
Deville's     method    of    obtaining     pure 

nickel,  118 

D'Hennin's  process  of  melting  dross  re- 
sulting from  the  treatment  of  gold, 
82,  83 

Diallogite,  197 
Diamond,  associations  of  the,  in  North 

Carolina,  257,  258 
largest  found,  260 
occurrences  of,  in  the  United  States, 

256,  257 

specific  gravity  of  the,  259 
the,  256-260 
Diamonds,  forms  of,  260 

rough,  appearance  of,  259 
test  for,  259,  260 
Diaspore,  243 
Dihydyric  sulphide,  35 
Diller,  Mr.,  on  the  silicate  of  nickel  found 

in  the  Webster  mine,  N.  C.,  119,  120 
Disulphate  of  potash,  purification  of,  61 

sodium,  61 
Dougherty,  G.  T..  method  of  estimating 

antimony  described  by,  224 
Drainage    canal  or  sluice,   construction 

of  a,  in  main  galleries,  340 
importance  of,  266 
preparing   the  floor  of  a  gallery  or 

drift  for,  325,  326 
Drift,  arching  a,  339,  340 
inclined,  264 
on  the  dip,  a,  264 

preparing  the  floor  of  a,  for  trans- 
portation, 325,  326 
Drifts      and      galleries,     transportation 

through,  305 

cutting  of,  in  coal  beds,  295,  296 
or  ore  ways,  271 

Du  Bois,  Wm.  E.,  remarks  of,  on  gold,  75 
Dump  cart,  the,  318 

Dumping  floor  or  pit,  depth  of  the,  276 
Dyscracite,  96 

ECKFELDT,  J.  R.,  experiment  of,  in 
alloying  gold,  77 
Elementary    bodies    combining   weights 

of,  23 
Elements,    combination    of,    with    each 

other,  22 

determination    of     the    combining 
number  of  the,  22 


Elements,  most  important  fact  connected 

with  the,  22 
number  of,  21 
symbols  of,  22 
Emery  and  corundum,  250-252 

product  of.  in  the  United 

States,  251,  252 
imports  of,  252 
occurrences  of,  in  the  United  States, 

250 

use  of,  251 
Engines,   steam,  general   principles   of, 

313-316 

principle  of  reversing,  316,  317 
Etta  mine,  per  cent,  of  tin  in  the  kidney 

ore  from  the,  164 

Evans  mine,  Canada,  division  of  values 
found,  in  screening  the  nickel  ore  from 
the,  121 
Exhausters,  experiments  with,   186,  187 

FAULTS  or  shifts,  278,  279 
Ferro-manganese,    production    of, 

202 

Filtering,  rapid,  vacuum  for,  57-59 
Filter  papers,  burning  of,  50,  51 

folding  of,  56,  57 
Flame,  constitution  of  a,  12 
inner.  11 
outer,  11 
oxidizing,  12 

production  of  the,  13,  14 
reducing.  13 

production  of  the,  13 
|  Flasks,  heating  of,  53 
!  Fluorspar,  cost  of,  246 
Flux,  black,  39 
Fracture,  definition  of,  5 
Frame  for  timbering  shafts,  326 
Framing,  method  of,  323 
Frames,  placing  the,  324,  325 
single,  replacing  of,  333 
Frankiinite,  197 
Freienslebenite,  96 

Fuming  nitric  acid,  preparation  of,  60,  61 
Furnace,  assay,  48-50 

clay,  substitute  for,  20 
extemporized,  20 

shelf,  Hiittner  and  Scott's,  216-218 
Furnaces,  cupel,  objectionable  feature  in 

some,  101 

cylinder,  of  the   Rumford   pattern, 
216 

PALENA,  182 

\J         appearance  of,  183 

gold  in,  78 

silver  in,  95,  183 
Galenite,  182 


358 


INDEX. 


Galleries      and      drifts,     transportation 

through,  305 
main,    construction    of  a    drainage 

canal  or  sluice  in,  340 
manner  of  distinguishing,  267 
parallel,  names  applied  to,  271 
Gallery,  arching  a,  339,  340 

building  a,  parallel   with    the  pay- 
rock,  269 

main,  usual  location  of  the,  26*7 
opening  a,  from  the  side  of  a  hill, 

267,  268 
partly  in  the  rock  and  partly  in  the 

lode,  269 

preparing  the  floor  of  a,  for  trans- 
portation, 325,  326 
side  or  drift,  opening  a,  325 
terms  used  for  the  various  parts  of 

a,  264 

timbering  a,  322,  323 
walls  of  the,  333,  334 
Gangue,    distinction    between    the,   and 

the  ore,  279 
Gangway,  heading,  the,  264 

terms  used  for  the  various  parts  of 

a,  264 

Gangways  opening  into  the  shaft,  276 
Gap-mine,    Lancaster    Co.,  Pa.,  copper- 
nickel  found  at  the,  119 
Garnet,  brown,  distinction  of  cassiterite 

from,  165 
Gamier,  M.,  discovery   of  nickel  by,  in 

New  Caledonia,  118,  119 
Gas  and  oil  wells,  351,  352 

well,  sinking  a  351,  352 
Genth,  Dr.,  analysis  of  tin  ore  by,  164 

on   the   occurrence  of  gold   in 

North  Carolina,  73 
Geology   and    associations   of  mercury, 

213,  214 

localities  of  tin,  162-164 
occurrence    of    platinum, 

204-206 
localities  and  associations  of  silver, 

93-97 
of  gold  and  its  associations,  71-78 

stannite,  166 
Georgia  bauxite,  237,  238 

analyses  of,  240 
diamonds  found  in,  258 
gold,  fineness  of,  76 
production  of  gold  in,  68 
Gersdorffite,  114,  115 
Gibbsite,  243,  244 

Glass  making,  use  of  manganese  in,  201 
Glassware,  heating  of,  52,  53 

how  to  use,  51-54 

Gogebic   iron    district,   Ontonagon    Co., 
Mich.,  160 


Gold,  64-92 

affinities  and   alloys,   curious   facts 

of,  77,  78 

alloys,  methods   of  treating,   78-83- 
amalgamation     of,    with    mercury, 

87,  88 
and    platinum,  extraction    of,  from. 

the  slag,  81 
silver,  associations  of,  76 

value  of  the  annual  output, 
of,  in  the  United  States,. 
71 

chlorine   refining  and  parting  pro- 
cess for,  77 
color  of,  65 

combination  of,  with  sulphur,  72 
composition  of,  65 
cradle  and  rocker  for  the  discoverv 

of,  86,  87 

decrease  in  the  production  of,  68,  69 
distribution  of,  72 
ductility  of,  65 
dust,    separation    of  iridium    from,. 

211 

effect  of  lead  upon,  190 
exploitation,    accomplishments    forr 

85 

extracted,  platinum  in,  79 
extraction  of  palladium  from,  83 
ferruginous,    treatment   of,    in    the 

Mint  of  the  United  States,  78,  7ft 
geology  and    associations  of,  71-78 
grains,  amount  of,  in  the  slag,  80 
hardness  of,  65 
instrument  for  the  discovery  of,  85r 

86 

malleability  of,  65 
melting  the  dross  resulting  from  the 

treatment  of,  82.  83 
mixture  for  smelting,  89 
native    California,  average  fineness 

of,  75 

deceptive  color  of,  76 
natural  alloys  and  accompaniments 

of,  77 
occurrence  of,  in  rocks,  73 

the      gravels      and 

sands  of  rivers,  73 

occurrent   condition   and    form   in 

nature  of,  64,  65 
ores,  discovery  and  proving  of,  85- 

92 

poorer  ores  containing,  88-92 
precaution  in  melting,  91,  92 
precautions  in  the  treatment  of,  91 
production  of,  in  the  United  States, 

69 

pure  native,  75 
quartz,  crushing  of,  88 


INDEX. 


359 


Gold,  rock,  crushing  of,  88 

-silver  alloy,  fineness  of,  7f> 

and  copper  alloy,  precaution  in  j 
dissolving  a,  91 

specific  gravity  of,  65 
heat  of,  234 

sulphuret  of,  71 

United  States  localities  of,  65-68 

use  of  cast  iron  in  parting,  83-85 

various  associations  of,  72 

world's  production  of,  71 
Grade,  amount  of,  267 

modification  of  the,  267 

provision  for  the,  266,  267 
Granite  rock,  veins  of  pyrites  contain-  i 

ing  gold  in,  72 
Granza,  215 

Great  Britain,  chief  ores  of  iron  in,  126  ! 
Greisen,  per  cent,  of  tin  ore  in,  163,  164 
Grindstones,  255 

HAIDLEN  and   Fresenius,  process    of 
separating  silver  from  copper  by,  | 
102 
Hall,  Chas.  H.,  process    of  manufacture  j 

of  aluminium  invented  by,  245—248 
Hand,  determining   the  bulk  or  volume  j 

of  the,  7,  8 
Hardness,  definition  of,  4 

scale  of,  64 
Hausmannite,  194 
Heading  gangway,  the,  264 
Headway,  the,  264 
Heat,  conductivity  of.  of  various  metals, 

234 

specific,  of  various  metals,  234 
Hematite,  128,  129 

attractability    of,    by    the    magnet, 

129 
brown,  129-131 

composition  of,  129,  130 
geologic  position  of,  130 
hardness  of,  129 
impurities  of,  130 
ores,  trial  shafts  in  the,  265 
per  cent,  of  iron  in,  130 
specific  gravity  of,  129 
per  cent,  of  iron  in,  129 
Holland,  J.,  process  of  combining  phos- 
phorus and  iridium  discovered  by,  211, 
212 

Horn-stone,  gold  distributed  through,  72 
Horse-whim,  the,  309,  310 
Hungarian    process   of    examining    iron 

pyrites  containing  gold.  89,  90 
Hiittnerand  Scott  shelf-furnace,  216-218 
Hydrochloric  acid,  33,  34 
Hydrogen,  29 

sulphuretted,  35 


Hydrosulphide  of  ammonium,  43 
Hydrosulphuric  acid  gas,  35 

IDAHO,  diamonds  found  in,  259 
Inclines,    steep,    transportation    on. 

317-319 

Indigo  copper,  108 
Infusorial  earth,  253,  254 

occurrences  of,  in  the  United 

States,  253 
production  of,  in  the  United 

States,  254 
uses  of,  253 

Iodine  and  bromine,  31.  32 
Iridium,  209-212 

association  of,  209 

color  of,  209 

combination    of,    with   phosphorus. 

211,  212 

geographical  distribution  of,  210 
hardness  of,  209 
lustre  of,  209 
malleability  of,  209 
melting  point  of,  212 
price  of,  212 
principal  source  of,  210 
separation  of,  from  gold  dust,  21 1 
specific  gravity  of,  209 
Iridosmine,  206,  209 

natural  grains  of,  use  of,  212 
price  of,  212 
Iron,  33,  126-160 

arsenical,  deception  caused  by,  95 
heat  conducting  power  of,  126 
chief  ores  of,  126-131 

in  Great  Britain,  126 
distribution  of,  in  nature,  126 
ductility  of,  126 
effect  of  phosphorus  on,  127 

sulphur  on,  127 

electrical  conducting  power  of,  126 
malleability  of.  126 
meteoric,  126 
native,  126 
ore   containing    gold,    examination 

of,  89 

deposits,  exhaustion  of,  159,  160 
remedy  for  prospective  ex- 
haustion of,  160 
sand, 151 

titaniferous,    extraction    of  ti- 
tanic acid  from,  152,  153 
ores,  argentiferous,  202 

blowpipe  detection  of,  132 
choosing  samples  of.  for  experi- 
ments, 134 

determination  of  lime  in, 142, 143 
magnesia     i  n , 
142,  143 


360 


INDEX. 


Iron  ores,  determination  of  manganese  in, 

146-149 
phosphorus  in, 

139-142 
sulphur  in,  144- 

146 

dry  assay  of,  132-135 
titan  iferous,    furnace    products 

of,  151 

wet  assay  of,  135-153 
pig,  increase  in   the  production  of, 

159 

pure,  in  ores,  deduction  of,  142 
purest,  33 

pyrites   containing  gold,   examina- 
tion of,  89,  90 
sand,  extraction  of  titanic  acid  from, 

152, 153 
specific  gravity  of,  126 

heat  of,  234 
stone,  227,  228 
true  ores  of,  126 
volumetric  determination  of,  153-159 


J 


EFFERSON  Co.,  N.  Y.,  red  hematite 

ore  in,  3,  4 
Jigger  break,  the,  305 


KANSAS,  production  of  lead  ore  in, 
182 

Kermesite,  221 
Kidney  ore,  131 
King's  Mountain  mine,  Gaston  Co.,  N.  C., 

occurrence  of  gold  in  the,  74 
Kipp's   apparatus   for  determining   car- 
bonic dioxide,  149,  150 
Kongsberg,  Norway,    crystals  of  native 

silver  found  at,  93 
silver  mine,  94 

yellow  alloy  of  silver  found  at,  93 
Knebelite,  197 

LABORATORY,  selecting  a  room  for 
a,  47 

Ladders,  318 

Lake  Superior  region,  occurrence  of  cop- 
per in  the,  107 
Lamp,  alcoholic,  55 
Lead,  181-192 

absorption  of,  by  the  cupel,  19 
action  of  water  upon,  189,  190 
associations  of,  182 
characteristics,  189-192 
desilverizing  of,  187-189 
ductility  of,  181 

electrical  conducting  power  of,  181 
fusibility  of,  181 

geological  horizons  and  occurrence 
of,  182,  183 


Lead,  hardness  of,  181 

heat  conducting  power  of,  181 

malleability  of,  181 

native,  181 

occurrences  of,  in  the  United  States,. 

182 

orange  color,  16 

ore,  Mascazzinie's  method  of  assay- 
ing, 191,  192 
ores,  assay  of,  183-185 

by  the  wet  way,  185 
fumes  or  gaseous  constituents 

of,  186 
gold  in,  183 

manipulation  of,  185,  186 
silver  in,  95 
working  of,  on  the  large  scale, 

183-189 
oxide,  experiment  with,  before  the 

blowpipe,  16 
production  of,  in  the  United  Statesr 

182 

salt  of,  paper,  47 
separation  of  silver  from,  104 
Spanish  pig,  gold  in,  78 
specific  gravity  of,  181 
sulphate,  composition  of,  185 
tenacity  of,  181 
wet  assays  and  methods  of  detection 

of,  190-192 

Leadville,  argentiferous  iron  ores  of,  202 
Lenses,  use  of,  18 

Levels,  cutting  of,  in  coal  beds,  295,  296 
Lime,   determination    of,    in    iron    ores. 

142,  143 
-water,  38 
Limonite,  129-131 

peculiarities  of  appearance  in  ther 

of  some  mines,  130 
Lipari  Island,  pumice  stone  of  the,  252r 

253 
Litharge,  38 

experiment  with,  before  the  blow- 
pipe, 16 

Litmus  paper,  46 
Loam,  boring  through,  349 
Lode,  exploration  of  a,  277 

gallery  entirely  in  the,  268,  269 
not  uniformly  rich,  method  of  work- 
ing a,  290 
Lodes    and   veins,    how    prepared    and 

mined,  285-292 

working  of,  by  cross-work,  290-292 
Log  washer,  the,  200 
Long  wall  system  of  working,  292-294 

MAGNESIA,  determination  of,  in  iron 
ores,  142,  143 
Magnesium,  sulphate  of,  45 


INDEX. 


361 


Magnetic  ore,  chemical  composition  of,l 28  i 
ores,  126-128 

associations  of,  127 
content  of  iron  in,  127 
hardness  of,  127 
specific  gravity  of,  127 
Magnetism,    determination    of    minerals 

with  the  aid  of,  19 
Magnetite,  126-128 

geological  position  of,  127 
Makins   method  of  estimating  antimony,  • 

224,  225 
preliminary  assay  of  silver  described 

by,  97,  98 
scorification   process   described  by, 

99-101 

Manchester,  Va.,  diamond  found  at,  256 
Manganese,  192-204 
alloys,  203 

analyses  of,  by  the  wet  process,  204 
association  of,  with  iron,  192 
blowpipe  detection  of,  197,  198 
characteristic  color  of,  17 
determination  of,  in  iron  ores,  146- 

149 

distribution  of,  192 
metallic,  203 

method  of  mining,  adopted  by  the 
American  Manganese    Co.,   Lira-  i 
ited,  199,  200 

minute  traces  of,  detection  of,  204 
most   important    mines    of,    in    the 

United  States,  198,  199 
ores,  193-197 

argentiferous,  193 

Caucasus,  composition  of,  193, 

194 

Chilian,  composition  of,  194 
countries  producing,  202,  203 
foreign  substances  in,  192 
use  of,  200-204 
oxide,  determination  of,  in  building 

stones,  203 

separation  of,  192,  193 
spar,  196,  197 
steel,  production  of,  202 
Manganite,  194,  195 
Marble,   weighing    a    block    of,  without 

scales,  10,  11 

Market,  accessibility  to,  266 
Marl,  boring  through,  349 
Mascazzinie's  method  of  assaying  lead 

ore,  191,  192 
Masonry,  333-340 

and  timbering,  319,  320 
arched,  333,  334 
for  shafts,  340-342 

McGee,  C.  K.,  determination  of  the  elec-  . 
trie  conductivity  of  aluminium  by,  234 
24 


Mercurial  compounds,  characteristics  of, 

218-221 
Mercury,  212-221 

amalgamation  of  gold  with,  87,  88 
amalgam  of  silver   with,   found  at 

Coquimbo,  Chili,  93 
boiling  point  of,  213 
chemical  characteristics  of,  214,  215 
color  of,  213 
composition  of,  213 
ductility  of,  213 
geology    and    associations   of,   213, 

214 

hardness  of,  212 
in     compounds,    determination    of, 

220,  221 

localities  of,  213 
occurrent  forms  of,  212 
ores,  215-218 

treatment  of,  215-218 
oxides  of,  214,  215 
separation  of  silver  from,  105 
specific  gravity  of,  213 
Metal    containing   gold,    precaution    in 
using  nitric  acid  upon  a  mass  of,  92 
Metals,  precautions  in  melting,  91,  92 
Metallic  oxides,  groups  of,  26-28 

separation    of,  in   the  analysis 

of  zinc  ore,  179-181 
sulphides,    decomposition    of,    and 
separation  of  sulphur  from,  110- 
113 

Mexico,  production  of  gold  in,  68 
Microcosmic  salt,  14,  47 
Miller,  F.  B.,  chlorine  refining  and  part- 
ing process  of,  77 
Mine,  assorting  the  ore  in  the,  304 

disposition   of  working   force  in  a, 

284,  285 
examination   of   the   neighborhood 

of  the,  265,  266 
exploration  of  a,  277 
number  of  miners  to  be  employed  in 

a,  285 

provisions  and  precautions  in  work- 
ing a,  285 
robbing  of  the,  284 
water,  cistern   for  the  reception  of, 

272,  273 
removal  of,  270 
Mines,  final  preparation  and  working  of, 

282-285 

masonry  for,  333-340 
opening  of,  277-282 
preference  for  dry  walls  in,  339 
removal  of  water  from,  270 
supporting  open  spaces  in,  319,  320 
timbering  necessary  for  working  in, 
331,  332 


362 


INDEX. 


Mineral,  degree  of  hardness  of  a,  63 

deposits  that  occur   in    larger 
masses,       preparation      and 
working  of,  296-299 
Minerals,  approximating  the  weight  and 

specific  gravity  of,  6,  7 
cleavage  of,  4 
color  of,  5 
determination    of,  with    the  aid   ufj 

magnetism,  19 
fracture  of,  5 
hardness  of,  4 
preparation  of,  for  determining  the 

specific  gravity,  6 
recognition  of,  1 
skill  in  determining,  1 
streak  of,  5 

useful,  economic  treatment  and  his- 
tory of  the,  63-260 
gaining  of,  by  means  of  water, 

302,  303 

variations  in  the  specific  gravity  of, 
under  differing   degrees    of  tem- 
perature, 9,  10 
Mineralogy,  mining,  1-61 
Minet's    process   for   the    production    of 

aluminium,  244,  245 
Mining  by  descending  steps,  advantages 
and  disdvan- 
tages  of,  289, 
290 
method  of,  288,  ' 

289 
reverse   or  ascending   steps, 

methods  of,  286-288 
steps,  advantages  and  dis-  j 
advantages  of,   289,  290  j 
carpentry,  321-326 
construction  and   machinery,  263- 

342 
deposits  with  little  or  no  regularity,  j 

297,  298 
downward,  method  of,  288,  289 

timbering  in,  332 
drainage  in,  266 
judicious,  requirements  of,  283,  284 
long  wall  system  of,  292-294 
mineralogy,  1-61 
overhead,  methods  of,  286-288 

preparation  of  a  vein  for,  285,  j 

286 

timbering  in,  331,  332 
post  and  stall  system  of,  294-296 
preliminary    work    and    considera-  j 

tions  in,  265-277 
rock  salt,  298,  299 
systematic,    requirements    of,   281, 

282 
terms,  explanations  of,  263-265 


Mining  timbers,  trees  for,  321 

work  and  architecture,  261-342 
Mispickel,  deception  caused  by,  95 
Missouri,  production  of  lead  ore  in,  182 
Mitchell,  preliminary  assay  of  silver  ad- 

vised  by,  98,  99 
Molybdate  of  ammonium,  43 
Molybdic  acid,  37 
Monazite,  171,  257 
Mond,  L.,  process  for  the  reduction  of 

nickel  ores,  invented  by,  122-124 
Montana  copper  ores,  107 
diamond  found  in,  259 
gold  of,  77 

production  of  lead  in,  182 
Montgomery  Co.,  N.  C.,  gravel  deposits 

of,  75 
Mortar,   good  common,  preparation  of, 

334 

hydraulic,  preparation  of,  334 
Muffles  for  distilling  zinc,  clay  for,  176, 

177 

Muffle,  the,  20 

Munich  mint,  platinum  vessels  for  part- 
ing gold  used  at  the,  83-85 

NESTS,  cores  or  pockets,  preparation 
and  working  of,  300 
New  Almaden  mine,  Cal.,  215 
New  Britain,  Bucks  Co.,  Penna.,  gold  in 

galena  from,  *<8 
New  Caledonia,  discovery  of  nickel  in, 

118,  119 
New  Jersey,  manganiferous  zinc  ores  in, 

193 
New  York  mint,  melting  gold  containing 

osmiridium  at  the,  81,  82 
Niccolite,  114 
Nickel,  114-126 

alloys  of,  116,  117 

arsenide  of,  114 

arsenides  of,  in  the  United  States, 

120 

chloride  of,  115 
consumption     of,     in    the     United 

States,  125 

decrease  in  the  price  of,  125 
estimation  of,  117 
glance.  114,  115 
ore,  roasting  and  melting  of,   121, 

122 
separation  of  constituents  in  a, 

117 

sorting  of,  121 

ores,  foreign  localities  of,  124,  125 
Mond's  process  of  reducing, 

122-124 
of,  114,  115 
oxides  of,  115 


INDEX. 


363 


Nickel  product  of,  in  the  United  States, 

126 

properties  of,  114 
pure,  method  of  obtaining,  118 
separation  of  cobalt  from,  232,  233 
silicate  minerals,  comparison  of,  120 
specific  gravity  of,  114 

heat  of,  234 
-steel,  116,  117 

tests  of,  117 
sulphides  of,  115,  116 
sulpho-arsenides,     in     the     United 

States,  120 
Nitrate  of  barium,  44 
potassium,  39 
silver,  45,  46 
Nitric  acid,  34 

fuming,  preparation  of,  60,  61 
precaution  in  using,  92 
test  of,  for  chlorine,  91 
Nitro-prusside  of  sodium,  42,  43 
North  Carolina,  associations  of  the  dia- 
monds found  in,  257,  258 
diamonds  found  in,  256,  257 
gold,  fineness  of,  76 
occurrence  of  gold  in,  73-75 
peculiarity  in  the  gravel  beds 
of,  75  « 

production  of  gold  in,  68 
Nova  Scotia  gold,  fineness  of,  76 

rvCTAHEDRITE,  258 

U     Oil  and  gas  wells,  351,  352 

well,  sinking  a,  351,  352 
Ore,  assorting  the,  in  the  mine,  .'504 

correct  relation  between  the  pre- 
paratory work  and  the  extracting 
of,  283 

deposits,  large,  timbering  in  taking 
ore  from,  332 

distinction  between  the,  and  the 
gangue,  279 

exposed,  283 

inclination  of  the,  279,  280 

iron,  containing  gold,  examination 
of,  89 

kidneys  of,  opening  of,  and  prepar- 
ing for  mining,  281 

nests  of,  opening  of,  and  preparing 
for  mining,  281 

pyritic,  containing  gold,  examina- 
tion of,  89 

rise  of  the,  279,  280 

stoping  out  the,  283 

valuable,  in  the  wreck  of  a  mine, 
method  of  gaining,  298 

weighing  a  lump  of,  without  scales, 

10,  11 
Ores;  magnetic,  126-128     ' 


Oreways,  or  drifts,  271 
Osmiridium,  206 

melting  of  gold  containing, 

81,  82 

Oxalate  of  ammonium,  43 
Oxalic  acid,  36 
Oxide  of  copper,  38,  39 

manganese,    separation    of,    192, 

193 

zinc,  properties  of,  177 
Oxides,  metallic,  decomposition  of,  and 
separation  of  sulphur  from, 
110-113 

groups  of,  26-28 
of  nickel,  115 
Oxygen,  32,  33 

PAINT,  production   of,    from   manga- 
nese, 201 

Palladium,  extraction  of.  from  gold,  83 
Parkes's   process  of  desilverizing  lead, 

187,  188 

Parry's    method    of    determining    phos- 
phorus in  iron  ores,  140,  141 
Pattinson's  process  of  desilverizing  lead. 

187,  188 
Pay  rock,   building   a   gallery   parallel 

with  the,  269 
Pearl-white,  227 

Permanganate  of  potassium,  39,  40 
Peru,   large  masses  of  silver  from  the 

mines  of,  94 
Pewter,  223 

Philadelphia,  artesian  wells  in  the  vi- 
cinity of,  350 
mint,  melting  gold  containing  osmi- 

ridium  at  the,  81,  82 
Phillips,  Dr.  Wm.  B.,  analyses  of  Ala- 
bama bauxite,  by,  239 
Phosphate  of  sodium,  42 
Phosphorus,   combination    of,  with    iri- 

dium,  211,  212 
determination  of,  in  iron  ores,  139- 

142 

effect  of,  on  iron,  127 
salt  of,  47 
Pile  driving,  329 
Pillars,  artificial,  320 
Pipe-clay,  gold  deposited  upon,  72 
Pipes  or  tubing  used  in  sinking  artesian 

wells,  345,  346 
sinking  the,  347,  348 
Pittsburgh  Reduction  Co.,  output  of  alu- 
minium by  the, 
246 

process  of  manu- 
facture of  alu- 
minium by  the, 
245-248 


364 


INDEX. 


Pittsburgh  Testing  Laboratory,  Limited,  j  Pyrites,  copper,  108 

method     of    analyzing     bauxite  j          gold  associated  with,  72 
used  by  the,  241-243  ;  Pyrolusite,  193,  194 

Platinum,  204-209 

analysis  of,  by  the  wet  process,  206-  j  /QUARRY,  undergound,  320 

209  I  W     Quarrying,  by  means  of  tunnels,  302 

and   gold,  extraction    of,  from   the  i  ' 


slag,  81 
associations  of,  204 
color  and  streak  of,  204 
content  of,  in  extracted  gold,  79 
crucibles,  59.  60 
effect  ot  lead  upon,  190 
foil  cone  for  filter  papers,  56,  57 
geology   and    occurrence    of,    204- 

206 

hardness  of,  204 
lustre  of,  204 
melting-point  of,  212 
metals,  204 
ore,    California,    analysis     of,    205, 

206 

ores,  analysis  of,  210  / 
price  of,  206 
production  of,  in  the  United  States, 

206 

specific  heat  of,  234 
vessels,  use  of,  for  parting  gold,  83- 

85 
wire,  14 

caution  in  reducing  metal  upon, 

18,  19 
Pockets,  nests  or  cores,  preparation  and 

working  of.  300 
Portis  Mine,  N.  C.,  fineness  of  gold  in  j 

the,  74 
Post  and  stall  method  of  mining,  294- 

296 

Potash,  disulphate,  purification  of,  61 
Potassa.  37,  38 
Potassium,  carbonate  of,  39 
chlorate  of,  39 
cyanide,  41 
nitrate  of,  39 
permanganate  of,  39,  40 

volumetric    determination    by, 

153-159 
sulphate  of.  39 
sulphocyanide  of,  40 
Pottery,  use  of  manganese  in,  201 
Powell.  J.  W.,  on  the  exhaustion  of  iron 

deposits,  159,  160 
Psilomelane,  195,  196 
Psilomelanes,    composition   of    various, 

196 

Pumice  stone,  252,  253 
Purple  ore,  108 
Pyrargyrite,  97 
Pyrites,  auriferous,  experiment  with,  71 


loose  masses,  301 
open, 301 
solid  rock,  301,  302 

Quicksilver,  amalgamation  of  gold  with, 
87,  88 

REAGENTS,  28-47 
grouping  of  compounds  in  their 
relation  to  the  action  of,  26-28 
how  to  use,  51-54 
use  of,  in  excess,  meaning  of,  52 
Red  hematite,  128,  129 

attractability  of,  by  the  mag- 
net, 129 

ore  in  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.,  3,  4 
per  cent,  of  iron  in,  129 
Retorts  for  distilling  zinc,  manufacture 

of,  175,  176 
Richmond,   Va.,    analysis   of  infusorial 

earth  from,  253 

Riddles,  Douglas  Co.,  Oregon,  analysis  of 
nickel  silicate 
from,  120 
deposits  of  sili- 
cate of  nickel 
at,  119 

Rocker  or  cradle,  86,  87 
Rock,  method  of  obtaining  large  blocks 

of,  301,  302 

opening  the  shaft  in,  275 
salt,  mining  of,  298,  299 
solid,  quarrying  of,  301,  302 
Rocks,  occurrence  of  gold  in,  73 
Rodochrosite,  197 

Rods  used  in  sinking  artesian  wells,  346 
Roof,  weak,  mode  of  supporting  a,  276 
Root's  blower,  187 
Ropes,  hemp,  308 

UPC  of,  306 
Rotten-stone,  253 
Ruby  silver,  97 

Rumford  lime  kiln,  improved,  218 
Rutile,  151,  258 

ST.  PETERSBURG  mint,  melting  gold 
containing  osmiridium, 
at  the,82 

platinum  vessels  for  part- 
ing gold  used  in,  85 
Sal-Soda,  common,  14 
Salt,   method  of  gaining   by  dissolving 

the,  299 

microcosmic,  47 
mines,  method  employed  in  some, 299 


INDEX. 


365 


Salt  mines,  posts  and  caps  in,  323 
of  lead  paper,  47 

phosphorus,  47 
rock,  mining  of,  298,  209 
Sand-bath,  preparation  of  a.  47,  48 

iron,  extraction  of  titanic  acid  from, 

152,  153 
ore,  151 

pump,  the,  346,  347 
Scales,  analytical,  50 
Scorification  process,  99-101 
Scorifier,  the,  99 
Seed  bag,  use  of  the,  352 
Shaft,  compartments  of  a,  273,  274 
framing,  cross  section  of,  273 
importance  of  preserving  the  exact  ' 

vertical  direction  of  a,  274 
opening  the,  in  rock  or  soil,  275 
ore-gangways  opening  into  the,  276  j 
perpendicular,     advantage     of    the 

slope  over  the,  273 
sinking  a,  in  an   unstable  or  weak  ' 

lode  or  gangue,  275 
timbering,  lining  of,  327,  328 
the  long  sides  of  a,  328 
the  short  sides  of  a,  328 
timbers,  replacing  of,  333 
Shafts,  collecting  water  in,  342 
construction  of,  272 
day-frame  for,  326 
inclined,  masonry  of,  341,  342 

timbering  of,  330,  331 
in  swamp  lands,  masoning  of,  341 
masonry  for,  340-342 
perpendicular,  with    several    divi-  : 

sions,  timbering  of,  329,  330 
removal  of  water  from,  276,  277 
timbering  of,  326-330 
transportation  through,  306-317 
trial,  265 

Shifts  or  faults,  278,  279 
Shute,  sliding  gate  of  a,  306,  307 
Shutes  for  miners'  way,  331 
lining  of,  306 

transportation  through,  306 
Side  level  or  side  way,  265 
Siderite,  131 

Silica,  determination  of,  in  bauxite,  242 
Silicate  of  zinc,  170 

blowpipe  detection  of,  172 
Silicious  earth,  deposit  of,   at  Newton, 

Mo.,  254 
Silver,  92-106 

and  gold,  association  of,  76 

value  of  the  annual   output 
of  in  the  Uuited  States,  71 
antimonial,  96 
assay  of,  by  the  dry  way,  97-102 

wet  process,  102,103 


Silver,  associations  of,  97 
bismuth,  96 
caution  in  the  dry  assay  of,  102 

wet  process  of  assaying, 

103-105 
color  of,  93 
composition  of,  93 
cupellation  of,  101,  102 
ductility  of,  93 
examples  of  very  large  masses  of, 

94,  95 

hardness  of,  92 
humid  assay  of,  102,  103 
-lead,  analysis  of,  191 
localities,  geology  and  associations 

of,  93-97 

malleability  of,  93 
mixture  for  an  actual  assay  of,  98 
native,  occurrence  of,  95 
nitrate  of.  45,  46 
occurrent  form  and  appearance  of, 

in  nature,  92 

preliminary  assays  of,  '97-99 
principal  ores  of,  appearance  of,  95 

regions,  producing,  105,  106 
pure  native,  75 
ruby,  97 

separation  of,  from  bismuth,  104 
cadmium,  104 
copper,  102,  103 
lead,  104 
mercury,  105 
sulphurets,  105 
shop  sweepings,  assay  of,  99 
specific  gravity  of,  92 

heat  of.  234 
sulphuret  of,  gold  associated  with. 

72 

world's  product,  of,  105 
Slope,  advantage  of  the,  over  the  per- 
pendicular shaft,  273 
importance  of  preserving  the  exact 

inclination  of  a,  274 
in  coal  beds,  275 

sinking  a,  from  the  top  of  a  hill,  268 
Slopes,  masonry  of,  341,  342 

timbering  of,  330,  331 
I  Sluice  or  drainage    canal,   construction 

of  a,  in  main  galleries,  340 
Smaltine,  230 
j  Smith.  Prof.  E.  A  ,  on  mining  bauxite  in 

Alabama,  236,  237 
Smithsonite,  170 

blowpipe  detection  of,  171,  172 
I  Soda,  38 

|  Sodium,  acetate  of,  42 
carbonate  of,  41,  42 
chloride  of,  41 
disulphate,  61 


366 


INDEX. 


Sodium,  nitro-prusside  of,  42,  43 
phosphate  of,  42 
succinate  of,  42 
sulphide,  41 
sulphite  of,  41 
sulphuret  of,  41 
Soil,  opening  the  shaft  in,  275 
Solutions,  stirring  rods  for,  52 
Sonora,  large  mass  of  silver  discovered 

in,  94 

South  America,  production  of  gold  in,  68 
Carolina,  diamond  found  in,  258 

production  of  gold  in,  68 
Mountains,  N.  C.,  gravel  deposits  in 

the,  74 

Spathic  ore,  131 
Specific  gravity,  5-11 

determination  of,  5,  6 
rule  for  finding  the,  6 
scales  for,  21 

variations    in,    under    differing 
degrees  of  temperature,  9,  10 
Specular  ore,  128,  129 
Speiss,  115 
Spencer,  J.  W.,  on  Georgia  bauxite,  237, 

238 

Sphalerite,  171 

Spiegeleisen,  preparation  of,  202 
Spring  pole,  use  of  the,  351 
Stannite,  161 

blowpipe  detection  of,  166 
extraction  of,  for  detection,  166,  167 
geology  of,  166 
Staurolite,  163 
Steam  engines,  general  principles  of,  313- 

316 

principle  of  reversing,  316,  317 
Steel,  aluminium  in,  248 
Stepbanite,  96,  97 
Stibnite,  221-223 

blowpipe  detection  of,  221 
localities  of,  in  foreign  lands,  223 
occurrence  of,  in  the  United  States, 

222 

Stirring  rods,  52 
Stone,    weighing   a    block    of,    without 

scales.  10,  11 
Streak,  definition  of,  5 
Stream  tin,  162 
Strike,  diagonal,  a,  265 

gallery,  a,  264 
Stripping,  300 

Sturtevant     blower,    experiments    per- 
formed by  means  of  the,  187 
Succinate,  neutral,  of  ammonium,  43,  44 

of  sodium,  42 
Succinic  acid,  36 

Sudbury,  Canada,  analysis  of  nickel  ore 
of,  121 


Sudbury,    Canada,  nickel-sulphide  ores 

of,  120-122 

Sulphate  of  lead,  composition  of,  185 
magnesium,  45 
potassium,  39 

Sulphide,  arsenious,  composition  of,  181 
auric,  72 
aurous,  72 
dihydric,  35 

|  Sulphides  of  nickel.  115,  116 
|  Sulphite  of  sodium,  41 
Sulpho-arsenides  of  nickel  in  the  United 

States,  120 

!  Sulphocyanide  of  potassium,  40 
Sulphur,  combination  of  gold  with,  72 
determination  of,  in  iron  ores,  144- 

146 

effect  of,  on  iron,  127 
separation    of,    from    metallic    sul- 
phides, 110-113 
j  Sulphuret  of  silver,  gold  associated  with, 

72 

sodium,  41 

|  Sulphurets,  separation  of  silver  from,  105 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  35 
Sulphuric  acid,  34,  35 

parting  of  gold  by  means  of, 

83 
Sulphurous  acid.  37 

anhydride,  37 
Sumpt,  location  of  the,  273 

the,  271 

Surface  or  day- working,  300-303 
Swamp   lands,   shafts   in,   masoning   of, 
341 

TABLE  of  atomic  weights,  23 
practical  use  of 

the,  24-26 

combining  weights  of  ele- 
mentary bodies,  23 
the  analysis  of  the  ores  of 

platinum,  210 
Tartaric  acid,  36 

Temescal  tin  mines,  Cajalca,  Cal.,  analy- 
sis of  ore  from  the,  164 
Tennessee  gold,  fineness  of,  76 
Terrero,  215 

Test  iron,  preparation  of  the,  for  volu- 
metric determination,  154 
Thunder  Bay,  sulphide  of  zinc  and  lead 

from,  183 
Timber,  permanent,  322 

for  shafts,  327 

preparation  of  the  wood  for,  321 
position  of,  321 
temporary.  322 
trees  for,  321 
Timbering  a  gallery,  322,  323 


INDEX. 


367 


Timbering  and  masonry,  319,  320 
durability  in,  321,  322 
in  approaching  movable  and  loose 

masses  of  soil  or  rubbish,  322 
inclined  shafts,  330,  331 
in  taking   out  ore    from    large  de- 
posits, 332 
necessary   for    working    in    mines. 

331,  332 

of  shafts,  326-330 
perpendicular    shafts   with    several 

divisions,  329,  330 
renewing  of,  332,  333 
shaft,  lining  of,  327,  328 
slopes,  330,  331 

temporary,  for  shafts,  326,  327 
Tin,  33, 161-169 

atomic  weight  of,  161 

crackling  sound  emitted  by,  161 

ductility  of,  161 

estimating  the  quantity  of,  in  any 

compound,  167,  168 
localities  and  geology  of,  162-164 
melting  point  of,  161 
occurrent  form  of,  161,  162 
ore  from  the  Ternescal  mines,  anal- 
ysis of,  164 

gold  associated  with,  72 
ores,  mineralogical    appearance  of, 

164-166 
specific  gravity  of,  161 

heat  of,  234 
-stone,  161 
tenacity  of,  161 
world's  supply  of  169 
Titanic  acid,  151-153' 

blowpipe  detection  of,  152 
determination    of,    in    bauxite, 

242 
Titaniferous  iron  ore,  extraction  of  titanic 

acid  from,  152,  153 
ores,  furnace  products  of, 

151 
Tourmaline,    distinction    of    cassiterite 

from,  165 

Tramways,  laying  the  joists  for,  340 
Transportation,  304-319 

appliances  for  giving  expedition  and 

security  in,  317,  318 
classification  of,  304 
economy  in,  266 
general  rules  for,  304,  305 
on  steep  inclines,  317-319 
preparing  the  floor  of  a  gallery  or 

drift  for,  325,  326 
through  galleries  and  drifts,  305 
shafts,  306-317 
shutes,  306 
Trial  shafts,  265 


Tripoli,  253 

deposit  of,  on  the  Patuxent  River, 

Md.,  253,  254 
:  Tubing  or  pipes  used  in  sinking  artesian 

wells,  345,  346 
sinking  the,  347,  348 
j  Tunnel,  arched,  construction  of  a,  338 
'•.  Turbine  wheel,  method  of  placing  the, 

and  the  shaft,  312,  313 
wheels,  312,  313 

form    and    curvature    of    the 

blades  of,  312 
Turmeric  paper,  47 


u 


NITED    STATES,    consumption    of 

nickel  in  the,  125 
importation  of  buhr-stones 

into  the,  256 
large  masses  of  silver  found 

in  the,  94,  95 
larger  source  of  the  iron  of 

the,  128,  129 

leading  localities  for  buhr- 
stones  in  the,  255 
localities  of  gold  in,  65-68 
zinc  ores  in  the, 

170 

Mint,  treatment  of  ferru- 
ginous gold  in  the  78,  79 
most    important    mercury 
mine  in  the,  215 
mines  of  mangan- 
ese in  the,  198 
199 

nickel  ores  in  the,  119,  120 
occurrence   of  bismuth  in 

the,  227 
chromite     in 

the,  228 
cobalt  in  the, 

231 
copper  in  the, 

106 

iridium  in  the 

210,211 

platinum    in 

the,  204 
stibnite      i  n 

the,  222 
tin     in    the, 

162-164 

occurrences  of  bauxite  in 
the,     236- 
238 
emery  in  the, 

250 

in  fusorial 
earth  in 
the,  253 


368 


INDEX. 


United  States,  occurrences  of  lead  in  the, 

182 

principal  source  of  grind- 
stones    in 
the,  255 
production  of  copper  in  the, 

113,  114 
gold    in  the, 

69 

infusorial 
earth    in 
the,  254 
platinum    in 

the,  206 
silver  in  the, 

105 
product  of  aluminium    in 

the,  248,  249 
buhr-stones      in 

the,  256 
corundum     and 
emerv  in  the, 
251,  252 

nickel  in  the,  126 
pumice  stone  in  the,  252 
value    of    home    products 
and    imports   of 
grindstones      in 
the,  255 

pumice  stone  im- 
ported into  the, 
253 

rotten  stone  im- 
ported into  the, 
253 

the  annual  output 
of  gold  and  sil- 
ver in  the,  71 


u 


PBROW,  the,  264 

Utah,  deposits  of  stibnite  in,  222, 

223 
production  of  lead  in,  182 


VACUUM  for  rapid  filtering,  57-59 
Valentinite,  221 
Valve  sockets  or  catch-alls,  348 
Variegated  ore,  108 
Varvicite,  195 

Vein,  compression  or  pinching  of  a,  278 
exploration  of  a,  277 
most  important  changes  in  a,  278 
not  uniformly  rich,  method  of  work- 
ing a,  290 

preparation  of  a,  for  mining  over- 
head. 285,  286 

shortest  way  to  attack  a,  280 
splitting,  forking  or  scattering  of  a, 
278 


Veins    and    lodes,    how    prepared    and 

mined,  285-292 

Vogelsberg,  bauxite,  analysis  of,  239 
Volumetric  analysis,  zinc  for,  178 
determination  of  iron,  153-159 

WAD,  196 
Wall,  arched,  building  a,  338,  339 

construction  of  a,  335 
Walls,  dry,  333 

preference  for,  in  mines,  339 
in  shafts,  construction  of,  341 
partition,  in  shafts,  construction  of, 

341 

wet-laid,  333 
Washboard,  the,  303 
|  Water,  28 

action  of,  upon  lead,  189,  190 
collection  of,  in  shafts,  342 
distilled,  accurate  determination  of 

the  specific  gravity  with,  8 
for  assays,  53,  54 
gaining  useful  minerals    by  means 

of,  302,  303 
obtaining  a  supply  of,  in  sinking  an 

artesian  well,  350 

protecting  arched  walls  against,  339 
pumping  of,  271 
removal  of,  from  mines,  270 

shafts,  276,  277 
-wheel,  double,  310 
-whim,  brake  attachment  of  a,  310, 

311 

the,  310-312 

Way  run  on  the  gallery,  264 
Webster  mine,  N.  C.,  silicate  of  nickel 

found  in  the,  119,  120 
Well,  artesian,  to  commence  an,  348-351 
Wells,  artesian,   apparatus  for  sinking, 

343-348 

sinking  of,  343-351 
derricks  for  sinking,  343,  344,  345 
oil  and  gas,  351,  352 
White,  Prof.  H.  C.,  analyses  of  Georgia 

bauxite  by,  240 
i  Willemite,  170 

blowpipe  detection  of,  172 
!  Windlass,  the,  307,  308 
I  Wisconsin,  diamonds  found  in,  259 
|  Wockheim  bauxite,  analysis  of,  239 
!  Wood  tin,  bar  of,  from  Montana,  164 
|  Wrench  bar,  the,  348,  350 
!  Wurtz's  process  of  amalgamation,  87,  88 

Y  ENOTINE,  257,  358 

A 

ZAFFRE,  230 
Zinc,  33,  169-181 


INDEX. 


369 


Zinc,  Belgian  process  of  distilling,  174 
carbonate  of,  170 

blowpipe  detection  of, 

171,  172 
color  of,  169 
distillation  of,  172-177 
ductility  of,  169 
English  method  of  distilling,  173, 

174 

for  volumetric  analysis;  178 
granulation  of,  29 
hardness  of,  169 
impurities  of,  169,  170 
melting-point  of,  169 
metallic,  experiment  with,  before 

the  blowpipe,  16,  17 
proportion  of,  in  the  oxide  of 

zinc,  177 

muffles   for    distilling,    clay   for, 
176,  177 


Zinc,  occurrent  form  of,  169 

ore,  separation  of  metallic  oxides, 

in  the  analysis  of,  179-181 
ores,  localities  of,  170 

manganiferous,  193 
oxide  of,  properties  of,  177 
pure  metallic,  wet  process  for  ob- 
taining, 178 
retorts  for  distilling,  manufacture 

of,  175,  176 

salts,  precipitation  of,  178,  179 
Silesian  process  of  distilling,  174 
silicate  of,  170 

blowpipe    detection    of, 

172 
specific  gravity  of,  169 

heat  of,  234 
sulphide,  171 

occurrence  of,  170 


COLLECTION  OF  MINERALS  AND  ROCKS 


TO    ILLUSTKATE 


OSBORN'S  PRACTICAL  MANUAL  OF  MINERALS, 
MINES  AND  MINING. 

Supplied  by  A.  E.  FOOTE,  1224^26-28  North  41st  Street,  Philadelphia, 

The  whole  list  is  important,  but  those  wishing  to  reduce  cost  may  omit  the  starred  names. 
All  Crystallographic  systems  are  represented. 


OKES  AND  METALLIC  MINERALS. 


2. 
3. 
4. 

*5. 

*6. 

*7. 

*8. 
9. 

10. 
*11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 
*16. 

17. 

18. 

19. 
*20. 

21. 

22. 

23. 
*24. 
*25. 

26. 

27. 


Gold,  Native.        .  I   28. 

Gold  ore.  29. 
Silver. 

Horn  Silver,  Cerargyrite.  *30. 

Silver  Glance,  Argentite.  *31. 

Brittle  Silver,  Stephanite.  32. 

Pyrargyrite.  33. 

Platinum.  34. 

Copper.  35, 

Red  Oxide  of  Copper,  Cuprite.  37, 
Black  Oxide  of  i  opper,  Melaconite. 
Green  Carbonate  of  Copper,  Malachite.         39. 

Blue  Carbonate  of  Copper,  Azurite.  40. 

Copper  Pyrites,  Chalcopyrite.  41. 

Gray  Copper,  Tetrahedrite.  *42. 

Copper  Glance.  *43. 

Silicate  of  Copper,  Chrysocolla.  44. 

Galena,  argentiferous.  45. 

Carbonate  of  Lead,  Cerussite.  46. 

Sulphate  of  Lead,  Anglesite.  47. 

Phosphate  of  Lead,  Pyromorphite.  48. 

Tin  ore,  Cassiterite.  49. 

Tin  Pyrites,  Stannite.  50. 

Wolframite.  51. 

Columbite.  52. 

Zinc  Carbonate,  Smithsonite.  53. 

Zinc  Silicate,  Calamine.  *54. 


Willemite,  Zinc  Silicate. 

Zinc    Sulphide,    Sphalerite,    Blende    or 

Black  Jack. 

Red  Oxide  of  Zinc,  Zincite. 
Iron,  Meteoric. 
Magnetite,  granular. 
Magnetite,  Lodestone. 
Franklinite. 

36.  Specular  ore,  Hematite,  2  varieties. 
38.  Brown  Iron  Ore,  or  Brown  Hematite, 

or  Limonite,  2  varieties. 
Pyrite.  Miner's  Sulphur,  Cube,  isometric. 
Spathic  Iron  Ore,  Siderite. 
Cinnabar,  Mercury  Sulphide. 
Smaltite. 

Millerite,  Nickel  Sulphide. 
Pyrrhotite,  Niccoliferous  Pyrite. 
Garnierite,  Nickel  Silicate. 
Corundum,  Aluminium  Oxide. 
Cryolite. 

Aluminium  Hydrate,  Bauxite. 
Antimony  Sulphide,  Stibnite. 
Chromite,  Chromic  Iron  .Ore. 
Zircon,  tetragonal. 
Titanic  Oxide,  Rutile. 
Pyrolusite,  Manganese  Oxide. 
Wad,  Manganese  Oxide. 


GEMS  AND  USEFUL  NON-METALLIC  MINERALS. 
Some  are  important  associates  of  ores. 

*71.  Strontia  Carbonate,  Strontianite. 
*72.  Borax. 

73.  Sulphur. 
*74.  Diamond. 
*75.  Ruby. 
*76.  Sapphire. 

77.  Beryl,  hexagonal. 
*78.  Phe'nacite. 

79.  Topaz,  orthorhombic. 

80.  Garnet,  Almandite,  dodecahedral. 

81.  Garnet,  precious. 

82.  Epidote. 

83.  Fire  Opal. 

84.  Turquois. 
*85.  Chrvsobervl. 


*55.  Mineral  Wax. 

56.  Asphaltum. 

57.  Heavy  Spar,  Barite,  orthorhombic. 

58.  Lime,"  Carbonate,  Calcite,  rhombohedral. 
*59.  Clay,  Kaolin 

60.  Gypsum,  Plaster. 

61.  Gypsum,  Selenite,  monoclinic. 

62.  Apatite,  Phosphate  Lime,  hexagonal. 

63.  Coal. 

64.  Salt,  Halite  octahedral,  isometric. 
*65.  Petroleum. 

6fi.  Muscovite,  Mica. 

67.  Orthoclase. 

68.  Microcline.  Triclinic  Potash  Feldspar. 

69.  Quartz,  silica,  hexagonal. 

70.  Strontia  Sulphate,  Celestite. 


86.  Granite. 

87.  Gneiss. 

88.  Syenite. 

89.  Hyposyenite. 

90.  Mica  Schist. 


ROCKS. 
91.  Trap. 
92   Lava. 

93.  Trachyte. 

94.  Sandstone. 

95.  Conglomerate. 


96.  Limestone. 

97.  Oolite. 

98.  Dolomite. 

99.  Lithographic  Stone. 
100.  Shale. 


Other  species  mentioned  in  the  Manual  furnished  on  order. 

The  above  collection  is  put  up  in  three  sizes  (average),  costing  as  follows  : 

Teachers,  1^x2%  inches,  $12.00,  or  in  hard-wood  box,  $16  00,  or  75  specimens,  $6  00,  or  in 
hard-wood  box,  $9.00  ;  Prospectors,  l%xl%  inches,  $7  50,  or  in  hard-wood  box,  $9.00,  or  75 
specimens,  $4.00,  or  in  hard-wood  box,  |5.00.  Boxes  with  divisions.  Fragments,  %x%inch,  $3.50, 
or  in  hard-wood  box,  $4.50,  75  specimens,  $1.75,  or  in  hard-wood  box,$2.50.  Boxes  with  divisions. 

The  following  numbers  form  a  valuable  collection  for  blmrpipe  practice  :  4,  9,  10,  12,  14,  15, 
17,  18,  19,  21,  22,  23,  26,  27,  28,  29,  32,  34,  35,  37,  39,  40,  41,  44,  45,  46,  47,  48,  49,  50,  51,  52,  53,  56,  57, 
58,  60,  62,  64,  66,  67,  69,  70,  73.  77,  79,  80,  82,  83,  84.  Fifty  specimens,  "  Fragments,"  $1.00. 

The  following  numbers  form  a  valuable  cryetaUographic  series  :  34,  35,  39,  51,  52,  57,  58,  61,  62, 
64,  67,  68,  69,  73,  77,  79,  80.  Seventeen  specimens.  Teachers'  size,  $1.50  ;  Prospectors'  size,  $1.00  ; 
small  size,  75  cents. 

Collection  specially  designed  to  illustrate  scale  of  hardness  (see  page  64)  :  1.  Talc.  2.  Gypsum. 
3.  Calcite  4.  Fluorite.  5.  Apatite.  6  Feldspar.  7.  Quartz  8.  Topaz.  9.  Corundum.  10. 
Diamond,  File,  Magnet,  and  Honestone  for  testing  streak.  Without  Diamond,  Teachers'  size, 
$2.00  ;  Prospectors'  size,  $1.00;  Diamond,  75  cents  extra. 


OF 


practical  and  Scientific 

PUBLISHED  BY 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  Co, 


INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS. 

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AMATEUR  MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP: 

A  treatise  containing  plain  and  concise  directions  for  the  manipula- 
tion of  Wood  and  Metals,  including  Casting,  Forging,  Brazing, 
Soldering  and  Carpentry.  By  the  author  of  the  "  Lathe  and  Its 
Uses."  Seventh  edition.  Illustrated.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

ANDRES.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Volatile 
and  Fat  Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Siccatives  and  Sealing 
Waxes. 

From  the  German  of  ERWIN  ANDRES,  Manufacturer  of  Varnishes 
and  Lacquers.  With  additions  on  the  Manufacture  and  Application 
of  Varnishes,  Stains  for  Wood,  Horn,  Ivory,  Bone  and  Leather. 
From  the  German  of  DR.  EMIL  WINCKLER  and  Louis  E.  ANDES. 
The  whole  translated  and  edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  With  1 1 
illustrations.  I2mo.  .......  $2.50 

ARLOT. — A  Complete  Guide  for  Coach  Painters : 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  ARLOT,  Coach  Painter,  for 
eleven  years  Foreman  of  Painting  to  M.  Eherler,  Coach  Maker, 
Paris.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  To  which  is 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  Information  respecting  the  Materials 
and  the  Practice  of  Coach  and  Car  Painting  and  Varnishing  in  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.25 

(0 


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&RMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Practi- 
cal  Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and  Ma* 
chinist's  and  Engineer's  Drawing  Companion  : 

Forming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tectural Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud  the  elder, 
Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and  Industry,  Paris,  and 
MM.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amcroux,  Civil  Engineers.  Re- 
written and  arranged  with  additional  matter  and  plates,  selections  from 
and  examples  of  the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism 
of  the  day.  By  WILLIAM  JOHNSON,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edition,  410., 

half  morocco #7.50 

ARMSTRONG. — The  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam 

Boilers  : 

By  R.  ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.  With  an  Appendix  by  ROBERT  MALLET, 
C.  E.,  F.  R.  S.  Seventh  Edition.  Illustrated.  I  vol.  I2mo.  75 

ARROWSMITH.— Paper-Hanger's  Companion : 

A  Treatise  in  which  the  Practical  Operations  of  the  Trade  are 
Systematically  laid  down :  with  Copious  Directions  Preparatory  to 
Papering ;  Preventives  against  the  Effect  of  Damp  on  Walls ;  the 
various  Cements  and  Pastes  Adapted  to  the  Several  Purposes  o\ 
the  Trade ;  Observations  and  Directions  for  the  Panelling  and 
Ornamenting  of  Rooms,  etc.  By  JAMES  ARROWSMITH.  I2mo., 
cloth $1.00 

ASHTON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Designing 

Fancy  Cotton  and  Woollen  Cloths  from  Sample  : 
Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the  methods  of 
spooling  and  making  out  harness  for  cross  drafts  and  finding  any  re- 
quired reed;  with  calculations  and  tables  of  yarn.  By  FREDERIC  T. 
ASHTON,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield,  Mass.  With  fifty-two  illustrations. 
One  vol.  folio  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $6.00 

aSKINSON. — Perfumes  and  their  Preparation  : 
A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  Complete 
Directions  for  Making  Handkerchief  Perfumes,  Smelling-Salts, 
Sachets,  Fumigating  Pastils ;  Preparations  for  the  Care  of  the  Skin, 
the  Mouth,  the  Hair;  Cosmetics,  Hair  Dyes,  and  other  Toilet 
Articles.  By  G.  W.  ASKINSON.  Translated  from  the  German  by  IsiDOR 
FURST.  Revised  by  CHARLES  RICE.  32  Illustrations.  8vo.  $3.00 

8AIRD. — Miscellaneous  Papers  on  Economic  Questions. 
By  Henry  Carey  Baird.  {In  preparation.} 

BAIRD. — The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  and  Manager's  and 

Carder's  Guide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning ;  giving  the  Dimensions  and 
Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calculations,  etc. ;  with 
notices  of  recent  Improvements :  together  with  Rules  and  Examples 
ibr  making  changes  in  the  sizes  and  numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn. 
Compiled  from  the  papers  of  the  late  ROBERT  H.  BAIRD.  I2mo. 


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9AIRD. — Standard  Wages  Computing  Tables  : 

An  Improvement  in  all  former  Methods  of  Computation,  so  arranged 
that  wages  for  days,  hours,  or  fractions  of  hours,  at  a  specified  rate 
per  day  or  hour,  may  be  ascertained  at  a  glance.  By  T.  SPANGLER 
BAIRD.  Oblong  folio $5.00 

3AKER.— Long-Span  Railway  Bridges  : 

Comprising  Investigations  of  the  Comparative  Theoretical  and 
Practical  Advantages  of  the  various  Adopted  or  Proposed  Type 
Systems  of  Construction ;  with  numerous  Formulae  and  Tables.  By 
B.  BAKER.  i2mo.  $1.50 

BAKER. — The  Mathematical  Theory  of  the  Steam-Engine : 
With   Rules  at  length,  and   Examples  worked   out  for  the  use  of 
Practical   Men.     By  T.   BAKER,   C.   E.,  with  numerous  Diagrams. 
Sixth  Edition,  Revised  by  Prof.  J.  R.  YOUNG.     I2mo.         .  75 

BARLOW.— The    History    and    Principles    of    Weaving,   by 

Hand  and  by  Power : 

Re-printed,  with  Considerable  Additions,  from  "  Engineering,"  with 
a  chapter  on  Lace-making  Machinery,  reprinted  from  the  Journal  of 
the  "Society  of  Arts."  By  ALFRED  BARLOW.  With  several  hundred 
illustrations.  8vo.,  443  pages  .....  $10.00 

BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Combustion  of  Coal: 
Including  descriptions  of  various  mechanical  devices  for  the  Eco- 
nomic Generation  of  Heat  by  the  Combustion  of  Fuel,  whether  solid, 
liquid  or  gaseous.    8vo.     .......         $2.50 

BARR. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  High  Pressure  Steam  Boilers : 
Including  Results  of  Recent  Experimental  Tests  of  Boiler  Materials, 
together  with  a  Description  of  Approved  Safety  Apparatus,  Steam 
Pumps,  Injectors  and  Economizers  in  actual  use.  By  WM.  M.  BARR. 
204  Illustrations.  8vo.  .  .....  $3.00 

BAUERMAN.— A  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron: 

Containing  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Iron  Manufacture,  Methods  of 
Assay,  and  Analysis  of  Iron  Ores,  Processes  of  Manufacture  of  Iron 
and  Steel,  etc.,  etc.  By  H.  BAUERMAN,  F.  G.  S.,  Associate  of  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines.  Fifth  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Illustrated  with  numerous  Wood  Engravings  from  Drawings  by  J.  B. 
JORDAN.  I2mo $2.oc 

BAYLES.— House  Drainage  and  Water  Service  : 

In  Cities,  Villages  and  Rural  Neighborhoods.  With  Incidental  Con* 
sideration  of  Certain  Causes  Affecting  the  Healthfulness  of  Dwell- 
ings. By  JAMES  C.  BAYLES,  Editor  of  "  The  Iron  Age  "  and  "  The 
Metal  Worker."  With  numerous  illustrations.  8vo.  cloth, 

BEANS. — A   Treatise   on    Railway  Curves    and   Location  of 

Railroads  : 
By  E.  W.  BEANS,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     I2mo.     Tucks        .         $1.50 

BECKETT.— A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Clocks,  and  Watches 

and  Bells  : 

By  Sir  EDMUND  BECKETT,  Bart.,  LL.  D.,  Q.  C.  F.  R.  A.  S.  With 
numerous  illustrations.  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
I2mo $2-25 


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BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon  Frames,  Barn 
Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church  Spires,  etc.  Comprising 
also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building,  with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and 
valuable  Tables.  Illustrated  by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  Dearly 
200  figures.  By  WILLIAM  E.  BELL,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo $5-°° 

BEMROSE. — Fret-Cutting  and  Perforated  Carving: 

With  fifty-three  practical  illustrations.  By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.  i  vol. 
quarto  ..........  $2.50 

BEMROSE. — Manual  of  Buhl-work  and  Marquetry: 

With  Practical  Instructions  for  Learners,  and  ninety  colored  designs. 
By  W.  BEMROSE,  JR.  I  vol.  quarto  ....  $3.00 

BEMROSE.— Manual  of  Wood  Carving: 

With  Practical  Illustrations  for  Learners  of  the  Art,  and  Original  and 
Selected  Designs.  By  WILLIAM  BEMROSE,  JR.  With  an  Intro- 
duction by  LLEWELLYN  JEWITT,  F.  S.  A.,  etc.  With  128  illustra- 
tions, 4to.  . $2.50 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and  Various 
Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  BILLINGS.  Illustrated  by  nearly  200 
engravings.  8vo.  ........  $3-of 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion : 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and  Chemicals 
used  in  Dyeing,  their  Natures  and  Uses;  Mordants,  and  How  Made; 
with  the  best  American,  English,  French  and  German  processes  for 
Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool,  Cotton,  Linen,  Flannel,  Felt. 
Dress  Goods,  Mixed  and  Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur, 
Wool,  and  Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins, 
Furs,  Leather,  etc.,  etc.  By  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions  in  the 
Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water- Proofing  of 
Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water,  Manufacture  of  Aniline 
and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmonizing  Colors,  etc.,  etc.  ;  embrac- 
ing in  all  over  800  Receipts  for  Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by 
170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raiv  Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  BIRD, 
Practical  Dyer,  Author  of  "  The  Dyers'  Hand-Book."  8vo.  $10.00 

BLINN. — A  Practical  Workshop  Companion  for  Tin,  Sheet- 

Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers  : 

Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns  used  by 
Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper- plate  Workers;  Practical  Geometry; 
Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids ;  Tables  of  the  Weights  of 
Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc. ;  Tables  of  Areas  and  Circumference! 
of  Circles ;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lackers,  Cements,  Compositions,  etc., 
etc.  By  LEROY  J.  BLINN,  Master  Mechanic.  With  One  Hundred 
and  Seventy  Illustrations.  I2mo $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


BOOTH.— Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in  general,  theii 
Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing ;  Veneering  of  Marble  ;  Mosaics ; 
Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble,  Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts, 
Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated  from  the  French  by  M.  L.  BOOTH. 
With  an  Appendix  concerning  American  Marbles.  I2mo.,  cloth  $1.50 
BOOTH  and  MORFIT.— The  Encyclopaedia  of  Chemistry, 

Practical  and  Theoretical : 

Embracing  its  application  to  the  Arts,  Metallurgy,  Mineralogy, 
Geology,  Medicine  and  Pharmacy.  By  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  in  the  United  States  Mint,  Professor  of  Applied  Chem- 
istry in  the  Franklin  Institute,  etc.,  assisted  by  CAMPBELL  MORFIT, 
author  of  "  Chemical  Manipulations,"  etc.  Seventh  Edition.  Com- 
plete in  one  volume,  royal  8vo.,  978  pages,  with  numerous  wood-cuts 
and  other  illustrations  .......  $3>5° 

BRAM WELL.— The  Wool  Carder's  Vade-Mecum* 

A  Complete  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Carding  Textile  Fabrics.  By  W. 
C.  BRAMWELL.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Illustrated. 
Pp.  400.  I2mo $2.50 

BRANNT. — A    Practical   Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 

Fats  and  Oils  : 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and  Chemi- 
cal Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and  Refining 
them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them ;  as  well  as  the  Manu- 
facture of  Artificial  Butter,  Lubricants,  including  Mineral  Lubricating 
Oils,  etc.,  and  on  Ozokerite.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of 
DRS.  KARL  SCHAEDLER,  G.  W.  ASKINSON,  and  RICHARD  BRUNNER, 
with  Additions  and  Lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extrac- 
tion, Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing,  and  Bleaching  of  Fats  and 
Oils.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  244  engravings. 
739  pages.  8vo $12.50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Soap 

and  Candles : 

Based  upon  the  most  Recent  Experiences  in  the  Practice  and  Science ; 
comprising  the  Chemistry,  Raw  Materials,  Machinery,  and  Utensils 
and  Various  Processes  of  Manufacture,  including  a  great  variety  of 
formulas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  C.  Deite,  A. 
Engelhardt,  Dr.  C.  Schaedler  and  others ;  with  additions  and  lists 
of  American  Patents  relating  to  these  subjects.  By  WM.  T.  BRANNT. 
Illustrated  by  163  engravings.  677  pages.  8vo.  .  .  #7.50 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Raw  Materials  and  the 
Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Alcohol,  and  the  Prepara- 
tion of  Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  etc.  : 
Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Dr.  K.  Stammer,  I)r.  F.  Eisner, 
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chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs.  Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mier 
zinski,  Jacobsen,  Koller,  and  Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  1. 
BRANNT  and  WM.  H.  WAHL,  PH.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings. 
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BROWN. — Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements: 
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Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and  Miscellaneous  Machinery ;  and  in- 
cluding many  movements  never  before  published,  and  several  of 
which  have  only  recently  come  into  use.  By  HENRY  T.  BROWN, 
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BULLOCK.— The  American  Cottage  Builder  : 

A  Series  of  Designs,  Plans  and  Specifications,  from  $200  to  $20,000, 
for  Homes  for  the  People ;  together  with  Warming,  Ventilation, 
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BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Building : 
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gineers and  Mechanics.     Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK,  author  of  "  The 
American  Cottage  Builder."   Illustrated  by  250  Engravings.  8vo.  $3.00 

BURGH.— Practical    Rules    for    the   Proportions   of     Modern 

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By  N.  P.  BURGH,  Engineer.     I2mo.  ....         $1.50 

BYLES. — Sophisms    of     Free    Trade    and    Popular    Political 

Economy  Examined. 

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Pleas).  From  the  Ninth  English  Edition,  as  published  by  the 
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BOWMAN.— The  Structure  of  the  Wool  Fibre  in  its  Relation 

to  the  Use  of  Wool  for  Technical  Purposes : 
Being  the  substance,  with  additions,  of  Five  Lectures,  delivered  at 
the  request  of  the  Council,  to  the  members  of  the  Bradford  Technical 
College,  and  the  Society  of  Dyers  and  Colorists.  By  F.  II.  BOW- 
MAN, D.Sc.,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  L.  S.  Illustrated  by  32  engravings. 
8vo $6.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book  for  the  Artisan,  Mechanic,  and  Engi- 
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HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


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BYRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 
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work  ;  Levelling ;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings  ;  Embankments ;  Earth- 
work, etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  i8mo.,  full  bound,  pocket-book 
form  ..........  $1.75 

BYRNE. — The  Practical  Metal- Worker's  Assistant :  t 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all  Metals 
and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and  Tempering; 
Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding;  Works  in  Sheet  Metal; 
the  Processes  Dependent  on  the  Ductility  of  the  Metals;  Soldering; 
and  the  most  Improved  Processes  and  Tools  employed  by  Metal- 
workers. With  the  Application  of  the  Art  of  Electro-Metallurgy  to 
Manufacturing  Processes ;  collected  from  Original  Sources,  and  from 
the  works  of  Holtzapffel,  Bergeron,  Leupold,  Piumier,  Napier, 
Scoffern,  Clay,  Fairbairn  and  others.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  A  new, 
revised  and  improved  edition,  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  con- 
taining The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet- Iron.  By  JOHN  PERCY, 
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BYRNE.— The  Practical  Model  Calculator: 

For  the  Engineer,  Mechanic,  Manufacturer  of  Engine  Work,  NavaJ 
Architect,  Miner  and  Millwright.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  8vo.,  nearly 
600  pages $3.00 

CABINET  MAKER'S  ALBUM  OF  FURNITURE  -. 
Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of  Furniture. 
Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beautifully  Engraved   Plates. 
Oblong,  8vo.     ........  $2.00 

CALLINGHAM.— Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 

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CALLINGHAM.  i2mo.  .......  $1.50 

CAMPIN. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Mechanical  Engineering: 
Comprising  Metallurgy,  Moulding,  Casting,  Forging,  Tools,  Work.' 
shop  Machinery,  Mechanical  Manipulation,  Manufacture  of  Steam- 
Engines,  etc.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Analysis  of  Iron  and  Iron 
Ores.  By  FPANCIS  CAMPIN,  C.  E.  To  which  are  added,  Observations 
on  the  Construction  of  Steam  Boilers,  and  Remarks  upon  Furnaces 
used  for  Smoke  Prevention ;  with  a  Chapter  on  Explosions.  By  R. 
ARMSTRONG,  C.  E.,  and  JOHN  BOURNE.  Rules  for  Calculating  th« 
Change  Wheels  for  Screws  on  a  Turning  Lathe,  and  for  a  Wheek 
cutting  Machine.  By  J.  LA  NICCA.  Management  of  Steel,  Includ- 
ing Purging,  Hardening,  Tempering,  Annealing,  Shrinking  and 
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Illustrated  with  twenty-nine  plates  and  100  wood  engravings  $5.00 


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CAREY.— A  Memoir  of  Henry  C.  Carey. 

By  DR.  WM.  ELDER.    With  a  portrait.     8vo.,  cloth         .         .        75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey  : 

Harmony  of  Interests  :    Agricultural,  Manufacturing  and  Commer. 

cial.     8vo.  ..         $11.25 

Manual  of  Social  Science.     Condensed  from  Carey's  "  Principles 
of  Social  Science."     By  KATE  McKEAN.   I  vol.  I2mo.      .         $2.00 
Miscellaneous  Works.     With  a  Portrait.    2  vols.    8vo.         $10.00 
Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo.   .....         $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.  3  volumes,  8vo.  .  .  $7.50 
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The  Unity  of  Law :  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Physical, 
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CLARK. — Tramways,  their  Construction  and  Working : 

Embracing  a  Comprehensive  History  of  the  System.  With  an  ex' 
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power, steam,  heated  water  and  compressed  air ;  a  description  of  the 
varieties  of  Rolling  stock,  and  ample  details  of  cost  and  working  ex- 
penses. By  D.  KINNEAR  CLARK.  Illustrated  by  over  200  wood 
engravings,  and  thirteen  folding  plates.  I  vol.  8vo.  .  $9,00 

COLBURN. — The  Locomotive  Engine  : 

Including  a  Description  of  its  Structure,  Rules  for  Estimating  its 
Capabilities,  and  Practical  Observations  on  its  Construction  and  Man- 
agement. By  ZERAH  COLBURN.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  .  $1.00 

COLLENS. — The  Eden  of  Labor;  or,  the  Christian  Utopia. 
By  T.  WHARTON  COLLENS,  autho^of  "  Humanics,"    "  The  History 
of  Charity,"  etc.     I2mo.     Paper  cover,  $1.00;  Cloth          .         #1.25 

COOLEY. — A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery : 
Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet  Articles. 
With   a  Comprehensive    Collection  of  Formulae.     By   ARNOLD   J. 
COOLEY.    I2mo .         .         .         #1.50 

COOPER. — A  Treatise  on  the  use  of  Belting  for  the  Trans* 

mission  of  Power. 

With  numerous  illustrations  of  approved  and  actual  methods  of  ar^ 
ranging  Main  Driving  and  Quarter  Twist  Belts,  and  of  Belt  Fasten 
ings.  Examples  and  Rules  in  great  number  for  exhibiting  and  cal- 
culating the  size  and  driving  power  of  Belts.  Plain,  Particular  and 
Practical  Directions  for  the  Treatment,  Care  and  Management  of 
Belts.  Descriptions  of  many  varieties  of  Beltings,  together  with 
chapters  on  the  Transmission  of  Power  by  Ropes ;  by  Iron  and 
Wood  Frictional  Gearing;  on  the  Strength  of  Belting  Leather;  and 
on  the  Experimental  Investigations  of  Morin,  Briggs,  and  others.  By 
JOHN  H.  COOPER,  M.  E.  8vo #3.50 

CRAIK.— The  Practical  American  Millwright  and  MUler. 
By  DAVID  CRAIK,  Millwright.     Illustrated  by  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings and  two  folding  plates.     8vo $3.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  9 

CROSS. — The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner  : 

Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Different 
Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hitherto  been 
practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from  which  we  make  all 
our  Changes.  By  RICHARD  CROSS.  122  pp.  I2mo.  .  75 

CRISTIANI. — A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 
With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.     By  R.  S.  CRIS- 
TIANI, Chemist.     Author  of  "  Perfumery  and  Kindred  Arts."     Illus- 
trated by  176  engravings.     581  pages,  8vo.          .         .          .      $15.00 

COAL  AND  METAL  MINERS'  POCKET  BOOK: 

Of  Principles,  Rules,  Formulae,  and  Tables,  Specially  Compiled 
and  Prepared  for  the  Convenient  Use  of  Mine  Officials,  Mining  En- 
gineers, and  Students  preparing  themselves  for  Certificates  of  Compe- 
tency as  Mine  Inspectors  or  Mine  Foremen.  Revised  and  Enlarged 
edition.  Illustrated,  565  pages,  small  I2mo.,  cloth.  .  $2.00 

Pocket  book  form,  flexible  leather  with  flap  .         .  $2.75 

DAVIDSON. — A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting,  Grain- 
ing, Marbling,  and  Sign- Writing: 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Painting  in 
Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and  Practice  of  Sign- 
Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art,  a  Course  of  Elementary 
Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers,  etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful 
Receipts.  With  nine  colored  illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles, 
and  numerous  wood  engravings.  By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  I2mo. 

$3-°° 
DAVIES.— A  Treatise  on  Earthy  and  Other    Minerals   and 

Mining: 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated  by 
76  Engravings.  I2mo.  ......  .  $5.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Metalliferous  Minerals  and  Mining: 
By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S .,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of  Mines, 
Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engravings  of  Geological 
Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Machinery,  drawn  from  the 
practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised 
and  much  Enlarged  by  his  son,  E.  Henry  Davies.  I2mo.,  524 
pages .  #5.00 

DAVIES. — A  Treatise  on  Slate  and  Slate  Quarrying: 

Scientific,  Practical  and  Commercial.  By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S., 
Mining  Engineer,  etc.  With  numerous  illustrations  and  folding 
plates.  I2mo. $2.00 

DAVIS. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Brick, 

Tiles  and  Terra- Cotta  : 

Including  Stiff  Clay,  Dry  Clay,  Hand  Made,  Pressed  or  Front,  and 
Roadway  Paving  Brick,  Enamelled  Brick,  with  Glazes  and  Colors, 
Fire  Brick  and  'Blocks,  Silica  Brick,  Carbon  Brick,  Glass  Pots,  Re- 


io          HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

torts,  Architectural  Terra-Cotta,  Sewer  Pipe,  Drain  Tile,  Glazed  and 
Unglazed  Roofing  Tile,  Art  Tile,  Mosaics,  and  Imitation  of  Intarsia 
or  Inlaid  Surfaces.  Comprising  every  product  of  Clay  employed  in 
Architecture,  Engineering,  and  the  Blast  Furnace.  With  a  Detailed 
Description  of  the  Different  Clays  employed,  the  Most  Modern 
Machinery,  Tools,  and  Kilns  used,  and  the  Processes  for  Handling, 
Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and  Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape,  Dry- 
ing, Setting,  and  Burning.  By  Charles  Thomas  Davis.  Third  Edi- 
tion. Revised  and  in  great  part  rewritten.  Illustrated  by  261 
engravings.  662  pages  .......  $5.00 

DAVIS. — A  Treatise  on  Steam-Boiler  Incrustation  and  Meth- 
ods for  Preventing  Corrosion  and  the  Formation  of  Scale: 
By  CHARLES  T.  DAVIS.     Illustrated  by  65  engravings.     8vo.    #1.50 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrication, 
Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Including  the  Dif- 
ferent Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their  Values, 
the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical  Details  connected  with  an  intelli- 
gent and  a  profitable  prosecution  of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to 
the  best  American  Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Pa- 
per, complete  Lists  of  Paper-Making  Materials,  List  of  American 
Machines,  Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials, 
and  in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  156  engravings.  608  pages,  8vo.  $6.00 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Leather: 

Being  a  description  of  all  of  tl  Processes  for  the  Tanning,  Tawing, 
Currying,  Finishing  and  Dyeing  of  every  kind  of  Leather ;  including 
the  various  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  Determining  their 
Values;  the  Tools,  Machines,  and  all  Details  of  Importance  con- 
nected with  an  Intelligent  an-d  Profitable  Prosecution  of  the  Art,  with 
Special  Reference  to  the  Best  American  Practice.  To  which  are 
added  Complete  Lists  of  all  American  Patents  for  Materials,  Pro- 
cesses, Tools,  and  Machines  for  Tanning,  Currying,  etc.  By  CHARLES 
THOMAS  DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  302  engravings  and  12  Samples  of 
Dyed  Leathers.  One  vol.,  8vo.,  824  pages  .  .  „  $25.00 

DAWIDOWSKY— BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine,  Gelatine 
Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements,  Pastes,  Mucilages, 
etc. : 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Technical 
Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive  additions, 
including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  American  Processes,  by 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Graduate  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College 
of  Eldena,  Prussia.  35  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

DE  GRAFF. — The  Geometrical  Stair-Builders'  Guide : 
Being  a  Plain  Practical  System  of  Hand-Railing,  embracing  all  its 
necessary  Details,  and  Geometrically  Illustrated  by  twenty-two  Steel 
Engravings ;  together  with  the  use  of  the  most  approved  principle^ 
of  Practical  Geometry.     By  SIMON  DE  GRAFF,  Architect.      4.10. 

•  $2.50 


HENRY  CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        n 

DE  KONINCK— DIETZ.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 

Analysis  and  Assaying : 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce.  By  L.  L.  DE 
KONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Edited  with  Notes,  by 
ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M.  I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American 
Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an  Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A. 
FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $1.50 

DUNCAN.— Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  of  coim 
mon  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor  without  the  aid  of  a  tencher 
By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Revised.  72  engravings,  214 pp.  I2mo.  $1.50 

DUPLAIS. — A  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  and  Distillation 

of  Alcoholic  Liquors : 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to  Alcohol 
from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes,  Sorghum,  Aspho 
del,  Fruits,  etc. ;  with  the  Distillation  and  Rectification  of  Brandy 
Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe,  etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aro- 
matic Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or  Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic 
Tinctures,  Liqueurs,  Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the 
Ageing  of  Brandy  and  the  improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious 
Directions  and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors, 
etc.,  etc.  Translated  and  Edited' from  the  French  of  MM.  DUPLAIS, 
Aine  et  Jeune.  By  M.  McKENNiE,  M.  D.  To  which  are  added  the 
United  States  Internal  Revenue  Regulations  for  the  Assessment  and 
Collection  of  Taxes  on  Distilled  Spirits.  Illustrated  by  fourteen 
folding  plates  and  several  wood  engravings.  743  pp.  8vo.  $10  oo 

DUSSAUCE. — Practical  Treatise  on  the  Fabrication  of  Matches, 

Gun  Cotton,  and  Fulminating  Powder. 
By  Professor  H.  DUSSAUCE.     I2mo.          .         .         .         .         $3  oo 

DYER  AND  COLOR-MAKER'S  COMPANION: 

Containing  upwards  of  two  hundred  Receipts  for  making  Colors,  on 
the  most  approved  principles,  for  all  the  various  styles  and  fabrics  now 
in  existence;  with  the  Scouring  Process,  and  plain  Directions  for 
Preparing,  Washing-off,  and  Finishing  the  Goods.  I2mo.  $1.00 

EDWARDS. — A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine, 
For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Practical 
Work  for  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Mechanical  Engi- 
neer. Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings,  including  examples  of 
the  most  modern  Engines.  Third  edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with 
much  additional  matter.  12  mo.  414  pages  .  .  .  $2  oo 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines, 
Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.     By  EMORY  EDWARDSi 
Illustrated  I2mo. $2.00 

EDWARDS.— The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latest  and  most  ap- 
proved American  practice  in  the  design  and  construction  of  Steam 
Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of  engineers,  machinists,  boiler- 
tmkers,  and  engineering  students.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Fully 
illustrated,  419  pages.  I2mo.  -  ...  .  $2.50 


12         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


EDWARDS.— Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers,  an<S 

Screw  Propellers, 

Their  Design  and  Construction.  Showing  the  Present  Practice  ot 
the  most  Eminent  Engineers  and  Marine  Engine  Builders  in  the 
United  States.  Illustrated  by  30  large  and  elaborate  plates.  410.  $5.00 

tDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide 
In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American  Stationary, 
Portable,  and  Steam  Fire- Engines,  Steam  Pumps,  Boilers,  Injector^ 
Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings,  Safety  Valves  and  Steam 
Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  B> 
EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illustrated  by  119  engravings.  J.2O  pages. 
I2mo.  ..........  $2  50 

EISSLER.— The  Metallurgy  of  Gold: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Metallurgical  Treatment  of  Gold-Bear- 
ing  Ores,  including  the  Processes  of  Concentration  and  Chlorination, 
and  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of  Gold.  By  M.  EISSLER. 
With  132  Illustrations.  I2mo. $5.00 

EISSLER. — The  Metallurgy  of  Silver  : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Amalgamation,  Roasting,  and  Lixiviation 
of  Silver  Ores,  including  the  Assaying,  Melting,  and  Refining  of 
Silver  Bullion.  By  M.  EISSLER.  124  Illustrations.  336  pp. 
I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  $4.25 

ELDER. — Conversations  on  the  Principal  Subjects  of  Political 

Economy. 
By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo $2.50 

ELDER.— Questions  of  the  Day, 

Economic  and  Social.     By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.     8vo.     .      $3.00 

BRNI. — Mineralogy  Simplified. 

Easy  Methods  of  Determining  and  Classifying  Minerals,  including 
Ores,  by  means  of  the  Blowpipe,  and  by  Humid  Chemical  Analysis, 
based  on  Professor  von  Kobell's  Tables  for  the  Determination  of 
Minerals,  with  an  Introduction  to  Modern  Chemistry.  By  HENRY 
ERNI,  A.M.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Chemistry.  Second  Edition,  rewritten, 
enlarged  and  improved.  I2mo.  ....  $3  °° 

FAIRBAIRN.— The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machinery 

of  Transmission  • 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pulleys, 
Strength  and  Proportions  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts,  and  Engag- 
ing  and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  SIR  WILLIAM  FAIRBAIRN,  Bart 
C.  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150  wood-cuts.  In  one 
volume.  I2mo $2.50 

FLEMING. — Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America. 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable  Statistics 
as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives,  Cars,  etc.  By 
HOWARD  FLEMING.  Illustrated,  8vo $i  oo 

FORSYTH.— Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,   Mural,  and 

other  Monuments : 

Containing  78  Designs.  By  JAMES  FORSYTH.  With  an  Introduction 
by  CHARLES  BCUTELL,  M.  A.  4  to.,  cloth  .  .  •  #5  oo 


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FRANKEL— HUTTER.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manu* 
facture  of  Starch,  Glucose,  Starch-Sugar,  and  Dextrine: 

Based  on  the  German  of  LADISLAUS  VON  WAGNER,  Professor  in  the 
Royal  Technical  High  School,  Buda-Pest,  Hungary,  and  other 
authorities.  By  JULIUS  FRANKEL,  Graduate  of  the  Polytechnic 
School  of  Hanover.  Edited  by  ROBERT  HUTTER,  Chemist,  Practical 
Manufacturer  of  Starch-Sugar.  Illustrated  by  58  engravings,  cover- 
ing every  branch  of  the  subject,  including  examples  of  the  most 
Recent  and  Best  American  Machinery.  8vo.,  344  pp.  .  $3.50 

GARDNER.— The  Painter's  Encyclopaedia: 
Containing  Definitions  of  all  Important  Words  in  the  Art  of  Plain 
and  Artistic  Painting,  with  Details  of  Practice  in  Coach,  Carriage, 
Railway  Car,  House,  Sign,  and  Ornamental  Painting,  including 
Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Varnishing,  Polishing,  Lettering, 
Stenciling,  Gilding,  Bronzing,  etc.  By  FRANKLIN  B.  GARDNER. 
158  Illustrations.  I2ino.  427  pp.  .....  $2.00 

GARDNER. — Everybody's  Paint  Book: 

A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  Painting,  De- 
signed for  the  Special  Use  of  those  who  wish  to  do  their  own  work, 
and  consisting  of  Practical  Lessons  in  Plain  Painting,  Varnishing, 
Polishing,  Staining,  P?prr  Hanging,  Kalsomining,  etc.,  as  well  as 
Directions  for  Renovating  Furniture,  and  Hints  on  Artistic  Work  for 
Home  Decoration.  38  Illustrations.  I2mc.,  183  pp.  .  $1.00 

SEE.— The  Goldsmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Gold, 
including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Coloring,  Col- 
lecting,  and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation,  Recovery  of 
Waste ;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  Gold ;  with  a  New 
System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys ;  Solders,  Enamels,  and  other  Useful 
Rules  and  Recipes.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  I2mo.  0  .  $1-7$ 

GEE.— The  Silversmith's  Handbook  : 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of  Silver, 
including  the  different  modes  of  Refinir"-  and  Melting  the  Metal;  its 
Solders ;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys ;  Methods  of  Manipula- 
tion ;  Prevention  of  Waste  ;  Instructions  for  Improving  and  Finishing 
the  Surface  of  the  Work ;  together  with  other  Useful  Information  and 
Memoranda.  By  GEORGE  E.  GEE.  Illustrated.  I2mo.  $1-75 

GOTHIC  ALBUM  FOR  CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture.     Twenty-three  plates.     Oblong   $2.00 

GRANT.  —A  Handbook  on  the  Teeth  of  Gears  : 
Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction.     By  GEORGE 
B.  GRANT.     Illustrated.     Third  Edition,  enlarged.     8vo.          $100 

GREENWOOD.— Steel  and  Iron: 

Comprising  the  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Several  Methods  Pur- 
sued in  their  Manufacture,  and  of  their  Treatment  in  the  Rolling- 
Mills,  the  Forge,  and  the  Foundry.  By  WILLIAM  HENRY  GREEN- 
WOOD, F.  C.  S.  With  97  Diagrams,  536  pages.  I2mo.  $2.00 


14       HENRY   CAREY   BA1RD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE. 


GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men : 

Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechanics,  and 
Civil  Engineers.  By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.  8vo.,  plates  $3.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad  Engineer's  Pocket  Companion  for  th« 

Field : 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and  Angles, 
Tangential  Distances  and  Angles,  and  all  Necessary  Tables  for  En 
gineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Preliminary  Survey  to  the 
Construction  of  Railroads,  intended  Expressly  for  the  Young  En- 
gineer, together  with  Numerous  Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By 
W.  GRISWOLD.  I2mo.,  tucks  .....  $i-75 

GRUNER. — Studies  of  Blast  Furnace  Phenomena: 

By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines  oi 
France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole  des  Mines. 
Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an  /Appendix,  by  L.  X). 
B.  GORDON,  F.  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.  8vo.  .  .  .  $2-5C 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmei  and 

Mechanic : 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board  Meas. 
ure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure ;  Wages  and  Rent,  by 
Week  or  Month;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and  Cisterns;  Land 
Measure,  Interest  Tables,  with  Directions  for  Finding  the  Interest  on 
any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per  cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables. 
32  mo.,  boards.  186  pages  ......  .25 

HASERICK.— The  Secrets  of  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Wool,  Cotton, 

and  Linen, 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery  and 
Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and  Practice.  By 
E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed  Patterns  of  the  Yarni 
or  Fabrics.  8vo $7-^ 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical  Hatter. 
Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo.  .  .  $1.2$ 

HOFFER. — A    Practical   Treatise   on   Caoutchouc  and   Gutta 

Percha, 

Comprising  the  Properties  of  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  manner  or 
Mixing  and  Working  them ;  with  the  Fabrication  of  Vulcanized  and 
Hard  Rubbers,  Caoutchouc  and  Gutta  Percha  Compositions,  Water- 
proof Substances,  Elastic  Tissues,  the  Utilization  of  Waste,  etc.,  CK, 
From  the  German  of  RAIMUND  HOFFER.  By  W.  T.  BRAN  NT. 
Illustrated  I2mo.  .  .  ......  $2.50 

HAUPT. — Street  Railway  Motors  : 

With  Descriptions  and  Cost  of  Plants  and  Operation  of  the  Various 
Systems  now  in  Use.  I2mo.  $1-75 


HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        15 

HAUPT— RHAWN.— A  Move  for  Better  Roads: 

Essays  on  Road-making  and  Maintenance  and  Road  Laws,  for 
which  Prizes  or  Honorable  Mention  were  Awarded  through  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  by  a  Committee  of  Citizens  of  Philadel- 
phia, with  a  Synopsis  of  other  Contributions  and  a  Review  by  the 
Secretary,  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  A.  M.,  C.  E. ;  also  an  Introduction  by 
WILLIAM  H.  RHAWN,  Chairman  of  the  Committee.  319  pages. 
8vo $2.00 

HUGHES. — American  Miller  and  Millwright's  Assistant: 
By  WILLIAM  CARTER  HUGHES.     121110 $1.50 

HULME. — Worked  Examination  Questions  in  Plane  Geomet- 
rical Drawing  : 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Wool- 
wich; the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst ;  the  Indian  Civil  En- 
gineering College,  Cooper's  Hill  ;  Lndian  Public  Works  and  Tele- 
graph Departments  ;  Royal  Marine  Li<jht  Infantry  ;  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc.  By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L. 
S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marlborough  College.  Illustrated  by  300 
examples.  Small  quartc 0  $2.50. 

JER  VIS. —Railroad  Property: 

A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Railways; 
designed  to  afford  useful  knowledge,  in  the  popular  style,  to  the 
holders  of  this  class  of  property ;  as  well  as  Railway  Managers,  Offi- 
cers, and  Agents.  By  JOHN  B.  JERVIS,  late  Civil  Engineer  of  the 
Hudson  River  Railroad,  Croton  Aqueduct,  etc.  i2mo.,  cloth  $2.oc 

KEENE.— A  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Gauging: 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners,  to  which  is  added  a  Chapter  on  Distilla- 
tion, describing  the  process  in  operation  at  the  Custom-House  for 
ascertaining  the  Strength  of  Wines.  By  JAMES  B.  KEENE,  of  H.  M. 
Customs.  8vo. $1.25 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industrial  and 

Financial  Questions : 
By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.     544  pages,  8vo.  .        $2.5^ 

KELLOGG. — A  New  Monetary  System  : 

The  only  means  of  Securing  the  respective  Rights  of  Labor  and 
Property,  and  of  Protecting  the  Public  from  Financial  Revulsions. 
By  EDWARD  KELLOGG.  Revised  from  his  work  on  "  Labor  and 
other  Capital."  With  numerous  additions  from  his  manuscript 
Edited  by  MARY  KELLOGG  PUTNAM.  Fifth  edition.  To  which  i«? 
added  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  Author.  One  volume,  I2mo. 

Paper  cover $I.OO 

Bound  in  cloth 1.25 

KEMLO.— Watch-Repairer's  Hand-Book : 
Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking  Apart, 
Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the  English  Lever  and 
other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American  Watches.     By  F.  KEMLO, 
Practical  Watchmaker.     With  Illustrations.     I2ma  .         $1.25 


16  HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

KENTISH.— A  Treatise  on  a  Box  of  Instruments, 

And  the  Slide  Rule ;  with  the  Theory  of  Trigonometry  and  Loga 
rithms,  including  Practical  Geometry,  Surveying,  Measuring  of  Tim- 
ber,  Cask  and  Malt  Gauging,  Heights,  and  Distances.  By  THOMA* 
KENTISH.  In  one  volume.  I2mo.  ....  $1.25 

KERL.— The  Assayer's  Manual : 

An  Abridged  Treatise  on  the  Docimastic  Examination  of  Ores,  and 
Furnace  and  other  Artificial  Products.  By  BRUNO  KERL,  Professor 
in  the  Royal  School  of  Mines.  Translated  from  the  German  hy 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Second  American  edition,  edited  with  Ex- 
tensive Additions  by  F.  LYNWOOD  GARRISON,  Member  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  etc.  Illustrated  by  87  en- 
gravings. 8vo #3.00 

KICK. — Flour  Manufacture. 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice.  By  FREDERICK  KICK 
Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical  Technology  in  tht 
imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute,  Prague.  Translated  from 
the  second  enlarged  and  revised  edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H. 
P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb.  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated 
with  28  Plates,  and  167  Wood-cuts.  367  pages.  8vo.  .  #10.00 
KINGZETT.— The  History,  Products,  and  Processes  of  the 

Alkali  Trade  : 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.     By  CHARLES  THOMAS 
KINGZETT,  Consulting  Chemist.    With  23  illustrations.    8vo.       $2.50 
KIRK.— The  Founding  of  Metals : 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Melting  of  Iron,  with  a  Description  of  the 
Founding  of  Alloys;  also,  of  all  the  Metals  and  Mineral  Substances 
used  in  the  Art  of  Founding.  Collected  from  original  sources.  Bj 
EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Foundryman  and  Chemist.  Illustrated, 

Third  edition.     8vo. $2.$C 

LANDRIN.— A  Treatise  on  Steel : 

Comprising  its  Theory,  Metallurgy,  Properties,  Practical  Working, 
and  Use.  By  M.  H.  C.  LANDRIN,  JR.,  Civil  Engineer.  Translated 
from  the  French,  with  Notes,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En 
gineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  the  Bessemer  and  the  Martin  Pro- 
r^«ses  for  Manufacturing  Steel,  from  the  Report  of  Abram  S.  Hewitt 
United  States  Commissioner  to  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867, 

I2mo.  $3.00 

LANGBEIN. — A  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Electro-Deposition 

of  Metals: 

Translated  from  the  German,  with  Additions,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT. 
125  illustrations.  8vo.  .......  $4.00 

LARDNER.— The  Steam-Engine : 

For  the  Use  of  Beginners.     Illustrated.     I2mo.    -         .         .         7'5 

LEHNER.— The  Manufacture  of  Ink: 

Comprising  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  Preparation  of  Waiting, 
Copying  and  Hektograph  Inks,  Safety  Inks,  Ink  Extracts  and  Pow- 
ders, etc.  Translated  from  the  German  of  SIGMUND  LEHNER,  with 
additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  $2.00 


HENRY   CAREY    BAIRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.        17 

LARKIN. — The  Practical  Brass  and  Iron  Founder's  Guide: 
A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals  and 
their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improvements  in  the 
Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer  Process,  etc.,  etc.  By 
TAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the  Brass  Foundry  Department  iii 
Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn  Works,  Philadelphia.  New  edition, 
revised,  with  extensive  additions.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.50 

LEROUX. — A    Practical     Treatise    on    the    Manufacture    of 

Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns  : 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calculations  applied 
to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring  Wools;  the  English 
and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Drawing,  and  Spinning  Worsteds, 
and  Manufacturing  Carded  Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of 
CHARLES  LEROUX,  Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a 
Spinning-Mill,  by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  To  which 
is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Jury,  and  of  the  Artisans  selected  by  the  Committee 
appointed  by  the  Council  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  London,  on  Woolen 
and  Worsted  Machinery  and  Fabrics,  as  exhibited  in  the  Paris  Uni» 
versal  Exposition,  1867.  8vo.  .....  $5.00 

LEFFEL,. — The  Construction  of  Mill-Dams  : 
Comprising  also  the  Building  of  Race  and  Reservoir  Embankment* 
and  Head-Gates,  the   Measurement  of  Streams,  Gauging  of  Water 
Supply,  etc.     By  JAMES  LEFFEL  &  Co.    Illustrated  by  58  engravings. 
8vo.  . $2.50 

LESLIE. — Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss  LESLIE. 
Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the  addition  of  New 
Receipts.  I2mo.  ........  $1.50 

LE  VAN. — The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator : 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development;  including  the  Most 
Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together  with  the  Indi- 
cator, its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Application.  By  WILLIAM 
BARNET  LE  VAN.  Illustrated  by  205  Engravings,  chiefly  of  Indi- 
cator-Cards. 469  pp.  8vo.  ......  $4.00 

LIEBER. — Assayer's  Guide  : 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters,  for  the 
Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for  the  Ores  of  all 
the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins  and  Alloys,  and  of 
Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  Revised.  283  pp.  I2mo.  $1.50 

iLockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms  : 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing  those 
Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry,  Fitting,  Turn- 
Ing,  Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  comprising  upwards  of  Six- 
Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a  Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author 
i,f  "  Pattern  Making."  417  pp.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $3.00- 


i8         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 


LUKIN.  —  Amongst  Machines: 

Embracing  Descriptions  of  the  various  Mechanical  Appliances  used 
in  the  Manufacture  of  Wood,  Metal,  and  other  Substances.  I2mo. 

$i-75 
LUKIN.—  The  Boy  Engineers: 

What  They  Did,  and  How  They  Did  It.     With  30  plates.    I8mo. 

*I.7S 

LUKIN.—  The  Young  Mechanic  : 

Practical  Carpentry.  Containing  Directions  for  the  Use  of  all  kinds 
of  Tools,  and  for  Construction  of  Steam-  Engines  and  Mechanical 
Models,  including  the  Art  of  Turning  in  Wood  and  Metal.  By  JOHN 
LUKIN,  Author  of  "The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses,"  etc.  Illustrated. 
I2mo  ...........  $1-75 

MAIN  and  BROWN.—  Questions  on  Subjects  Connected  with 

the  Marine  Steam-Engine: 

And  Examination  Papers;  with  Hints  for  their  Solution.  By 
THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  Professor  of  Mathematics,  Royal  ""tfaval  College, 
and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Chief  Engineer,  R.  N.  I2mo.,  cloth  .  $1.00 

MAIN  and  BROWN.  —  The  Indicator  and  Dynamometer: 
With  their  Practical  Applications  to  the  Steam-Engine.     By  THOMAS 
J.  MAIN,   M.  A.  F.  R.,  Ass't    S.   Professor   Royal   Naval   College, 
Portsmouth,  and  THOMAS  BROWN,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer 
R.  N.,  attached  to  the  R.  N.  College.     Illustrated.     8vo.  .         $1.00 

MAIN  and  BROWN.—  The  Marine  Steam-Engine. 
By  THOMAS  J.  MAIN,  F.  R.  Ass't  S.  Mathematical  Professor  at  the 
Royal    Naval    College,   Portsmouth,  and   THOMAS    BROWN,   Assoc. 
Inst.  C.  E.,  Chief  Engineer  R.  N.     Attached  to  the  Royal  Naval 
College.     With  numerous  illustrations.     8vo. 

MAKINS.—  A  Manual  of  Metallurgy: 

By  GEORGE  HOGARTH  MAKINS.  100  engravings.  Second  edition 
rewritten  and  much  enlarged.  I2mo.,  592  pages  .  .  $3-oc 

MARTIN.—  Screw-Cutting  Tables,  for  the  Use  of  Mechanica) 

Engineers  : 

Showing  the  Proper  Arrangement  of  Wheels  for  Cutting  the  Threads 
of  Screws  of  any  Required  Pitch  ;  with  a  Table  for  Making  the  Uni- 
versal Gas-Pipe  Thread  and  Taps.  By  W.  A.  MARTIN,  Engineer. 
8vo  ...........  5c 

MICHELL.—  Mine  Drainage: 

Being  a  Complete  and  Practical  Treatise  on  Direct-Acting  Under- 
ground Steam  Pumping  Machinery.  With  a  Description  of  a  large 
number  of  the  best  known  Engines,  their  General  Utility  and  the 
Special  Sphere  of  their  Action,  the  Mode  of  their  Application,  and 
their  Merits  compared  with  other  Pumping  Machinery.  By  STEPHEN 
MICHELL.  Illustrated  by  137  engravings.  8vo.,  277  pages  .  $6.00 

MOLESWORTH.—  Pocket-Book    of    Useful     Formulae     and 

Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers. 
By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon  Railway.     Full- 
buund  in  Pocket-book  form      .         .         .         •         -         •         £i.cx 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  19 

44OORE.— The  Universal  Assistant  and  the  Complete  Me- 
chanic : 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations,  Receipts, 
Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms,  Legal  Items,  Etc., 
in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household  to  the  Manufactory.  By 
R.  MOORE.  Illustrated  by  500  Engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.50 

MORRIS. — Easy  Rules  for  the  Measurement  of  Earthworks  : 
By  means  of  the  Prismoidal  Formula.  Illustrated  with  Numerous 
Wood-Cuts,  Problems,  and  Examples,  and  concluded  by  an  Exten- 
sive Table  for  finding  the  Solidity  in  cubic  yards  from  Mean  Areas. 
The  whole  being  adapted  for  convenient  use  by  Engineers,  Surveyors, 
Contractors,  and  others  needing  Correct  Measurements  of  Earthwork. 
By  ELWOOD  MORRIS,  C.  E.  8vo $1.50 

JMAUCHLINE.— The  Mine  Foreman's  Hand-Book 

Of  Practical  and  Theoretical  Information  on  the  Opening,  Venti- 
lating, and  Working  of  Collieries.  Questions  and  Answers  on  Prac- 
tical and  Theoretical  Coal  Mining.  Designed  to  Assist  Students  and 
Others  in  Passing  Examinations  for  Mine  Foremanships.  By 
ROBERT  MAUCHLINE,  Ex-Inspector  of  Mines.  A  New,  Revised  and 
Enlarged  Edition.  Illustrated  by  114  engrarings.  8vo.  337 
P^es $3-75 

NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing. 
By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised  Edi- 
tion. Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the  Science, 
including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  Illus- 
trated. 8vo.  422  pages $3-5o 

NEVILLE.— Hydraulic  Tables,  Coefficients,  and  Formula,  foi 
finding  the  Discharge  of  Water  from  Orifices,  Notches, 
Weirs,  Pipes,  and  Rivers : 

Third  Edition,  with  Additions,  consisting  of  New  Formulae  for  the 
Discharge  from  Tidal  and  Flood  Sluices  and  Siphons ;  general  infor- 
mation on  Rainfall,  Catchment-Basins,  Drainage,  Sewerage,  W'ater 
Supply  for  Towns  and  Mill  Power.  By  TOHN  NEVILLE,  C.  E.  M  R 
I.  A. ;  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society  of  Ireland.  Thicfc 
I2ino $5.50 

NEWBERY.— Gleanings     from     Ornamental     Art    of     every 

style : 

Drawn  from  Examples  in  the  British,  South  Kensington,  Indian, 
Crystal  Palace,  and  other  Museums,  the  Exhibitions  of  1851  and 
1862,  and  the  best  English  and  Foreign  works.  In  a  series  of  loo 
exquisitely  drawn  Plates,  containing  many  hundred  examples.  Bjf 
ROBERT  NEWBERY.  410. $12.50 

NICHOLLS.  -The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker  and 

Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers  of  Labor, 
foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers,  Iron,  Copper,  and  Tinsmiths 


20        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam-using  Public^  and  for  the 
Use  of  Science  Schools  and  Classes.  By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Hhi* 
trated  by  sixteen  plates,  1 2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  $2.50 

NICHOLSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Art  of  Bookbinding : 

Containing  full  instructions  in  the  different  Branches  of  Forwarding, 
Gilding,  and  Finishing.  Also,  the  Art  of  Marbling  Book-edges  and 
Paper.  By  JAMES  B.  NICHOLSON.  Illustrated.  I2mo.,  cloth  $2.25 

NICOLLS.— The  Railway  Builder: 

A  Hand-Book  for  Estimating  the  Probable  Cost  of  American  Rail- 
way Construction  and  Equipment.  By  WILLIAM  J.  NICOLLS,  Civil 
Engineer.  Illustrated,  full  bound,  pocket-book  form  .  $2.00 

NORMANDY.— The  Commercial  Handbook  of  Chemical  An- 

alysis : 

Or  Practical  Instructions  for  the  Determination  of  the  Intrinsic  01 
Commercial  Value  of  Substances  used  in  Manufactures,  in  Trades, 
and  in  the  Arts.  By  A.  NORMANDY.  New  Edition,  Enlarged,  and 
to  a  great  extent  rewritten.  By  HENRY  M.  NOAD,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
thick  I2mo .  $5-°^ 

NORRIS. — A  Handbook  fcr  Locomotive   Engineers  and  Ma- 
chinists: 

Comprising  the  Proportions  and  Calculations  for  Constructing  Loco- 
motives; Manner  of  Setting  Valves;  Tables  cf  Squares,  Cubes,  Areas, 
etc.,  etc.  By  SEPTIMUS  NORRIS,  M.  E.  New  edition.  Illustrated, 
I2mo $1.50 

NYSTRQM. — A  New  Treatise  on  Elements  of  Mechanics : 
Establishing  Strict  Precision  in  the   Meaning  of  Dynamical  Terms : 
accompanied  with  an  Appendix  on  Duodenal  Arithmetic  and   Me 
trology.     By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  C.  E.     Illustrated.     8vo.       $2.00 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Construc- 
tion of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers : 

For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM,  late 
Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  edition,  revised,  with  addi- 
tional matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $1.50 

O'NEILL. — A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Processes  in 
use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics  ;  with  Practical 
Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By  CHARLES  O'NEILL,  Analy- 
tical Chemist.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and 
their  application  to  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico 
Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867-  8vo., 
491  pages  .., ^3.50 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures'. 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  Determination 
of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United  States.  By  JAMES 
ORTON,  A.M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  Vassar  College, 
N.  Y.;  Cor.  Mem.  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 
and  of  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  New  York ;  author  of  the 
"Andes  and  the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  Additions. 
Illustrated  •  .  -  .  .  ,  .  ff.$9 


HENRY  CAREY  BAlRD   &   CO.'S   CATALOGUE.       21 

OSBORN.— The  Prospector's  Field  Book  and  Guide : 

In  the  Search  for  and  the  Easy  Determination  of  Ores  and  Other 
Useful  Minerals.  By  Prof.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of 
"  The  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel ;  "  "A  Practical  Manual  of 
Minerals,  Mines,  and  Mining."  Illustrated  by  44  Engravings. 
I2mo.  ..........  $1.50 

OSBORN. — A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and  Min- 
ing : 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Positions,  Local  Occur- 
rence and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals ;  their  Methods  of 
Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay :  together  with  'Various  Systems  of 
Excavating  and  Timbering,  Brick  and  Masonry  Work,  during  Driv- 
ing, Lining,  Bracing  and  other  Operations,  etc.  By  Prof.  H.  S. 
OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of  the.  "  Metallurgy  of  Iron  and  Steel." 
Illustrated  by  171  engravings  from  original  drawings.  8vo.  $4.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Manufacture  of  Steel : 

Containing  the  Practice  and  Principles  of  Working  and  Making  Steel. 
A  Handbook  for  Blacksmiths  and  Workers  in  Steel  and  Iron,  Wagon 
Makers,  Die  Sinkers,  Cutlers,  and  Manufacturers  of  Files  and  Hard- 
ware, of  Sleel  and  Iron,  and  for  Men  of  Science  and  Art.  By 
FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  Mining  Engineer,  Author  of  the  "  Manu- 
facture of  Iron,"  etc.  A  new,  enlarged,  and  revised  Edition.  By 
A.  A.  FESQWT,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.50 

OVERMAN.— The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide  : 
A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry-sand,  Loam, 
and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames,  Mill-gear,  Hollow- 
ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and  Statues ;  Description  of  Moulds 
for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and  other  Metals ;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur, 
Wax,  etc. ;  the  Construction  of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and 
Founding  of  Metals ;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature, 
etc.,  etc.  By  FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  M. .  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental  Moulding, 
Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chem- 
ist and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44  engravings.  I2mo.  .  $2.OO 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION, 
Containing  Rules  and  Regulations  in  everything  relating  to  the  ArtS 
of  Painting,  Gilding,  Varnishing,  Glass-Staining,  Graining,  Marbling, 
Sign- Writing,  Gilding  on  Glass,  and  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing; 
Tests  for  the  Detection  of  Adulterations  in  Oils,  Colors,  etc. ;  and  a 
Statement  of  the  Diseases  to  which  Painters  are  peculiarly  liable,  with 
the  Simplest  and  Best  Remedies.  Sixteenth  Edition.  Revised,  with 
an  Appendix.  Containing  Colors  and  Coloring — Theoretical  and 
Practical.  Comprising  descriptions  of  a  great  variety  of  Additional 
Pigments,  their  Qualities  and  Uses,  to  which  are  added,  Dryers,  and 
Modes  and  Operations  of  Painting,  etc.  Together  with  ChevreuF? 
Principles  of  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  I2mo.  Cloth  $!."><* 

iPALLETT. — The  Miller's,  Millwright's,  and  Engineer's  Guide, 
By  HENRY  PALLETT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  .  .  .  $2.0* 


22         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

PERCY. — The  Manufacture  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron. 

By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.,  Lecturer  on  Metallurgy  at  the 
Royal  School  of  Mines,  and  to  The  Advance  Class  of  Artillery 
Officers  at  the  Royal  Artillery  Institution,  Woolwich ;  Author  of 
"  Metallurgy."  With  Illustrations.  8vo.,  paper  .  .  50  cts. 

PERKINS.— Gas  and  Ventilation  : 

Practical  Treatise  on  Gas  and  Ventilation.  With  Special  Relation 
to  Illuminating,  Heating,  and  Cooking  by  Gas.  Including  Scientific 
Helps  to  Engineer-students  and  others.  With  Illustrated  Diagrams, 
By  E.  E.  PERKINS.  i2mo.,  cloth $1.25 

PERKINS  AND  STOWE.— A  New  Guide  to  the  Sheet-iron 

and  Boiler  Plate  Roller  : 

Containing  a  Series  of  Tables  showing  the  Weight  of  Slabs  and  Piles 
to  Produce  Boiler  Plates,  and  of  the  Weight  of  Piles  and  the  Sizes  of 
Bars  to  produce  Sheet-iron ;  the  Thickness  of  the  Bar  Gauge 
in  decimals ;  the  Weight  per  foot,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Bar  or 
Wire  Gauge  of  the  fractional  parts  of  an  inch;  the  Weight  per 
sheet,  and  the  Thickness  on  the  Wire  Gauge  of  Sheet-iron  of  various 
dimensions  to  weigh  112  Ibs.  per  bundle;  and  the  conversion  of 
Short  Weight  into  Long  Weight,  and  Long  Weight  into  Short. 
Estimated  and  collected  by  G.  H.  PERKINS  and  J.  G.  STOWE.  12.50 

POWELI CHANCE— HARRISc— The    Principles  of   Glass 

Making. 

By  HARRY  J.  POWELL,  B.  A.  Together  with  Treatises  on  Crown  and 
Sheet  Glass;  by  HENRY  CHANCE,  M.  A.  And  Plate  Glass,  by  H. 
G.  HARRIS,  Asso.  M.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated  i8mo.  .  $I.$G 

PROCTOR.— A  Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Tables  and  Formulae 

for  Marine  Engineers : 

By  FRANK  PROCTOR.  Second  Edition,  Revised  and  Enlarged. 
Full -bound  pocket-book  form  .  .  .  .  .  .  $1.50 

REGNAULT.— Elements  of  Chemistry: 

By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T.  FORREST 
BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES  C.  BOOTH,  Melter 
and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L.  FABER,  Metallurgist  and 
Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  nearly  700  wood-engravings.  Com- 
prising nearly  1,500  pages.  In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth  .  $7.50 

RICHARDS. — Aluminium : 

Its  History,  Occurrence,  Properties,  Metallurgy  and  Applications, 
including  its  Alloys.  By  JOSEPH  W.  RICHARDS,  A.  C.,  Chemist  and 
Practical  Metallurgist,  Member  of  the  Deutsche  Chemische  Gesell- 
schaft.  Illust.  Third  edition,  enlarged  and  revised  (1895)  .  $6.00 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.— A  Practical 

Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting : 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors;  the 
Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials ;  the  best  Formulae  and  the  Newest 
Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description  of  Pigment,  and 
the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for  its  Use ;  Dryers ;  the 
Testing.  Application,  and  Qualities  of  Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM. 
RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAINT.  Revised  and  Edited  by  M. 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          23 

F.  MALEPEYRE.  Translated  from  the  French,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  Eighty  engravings.  In  one 
vol.,  8vo.,  659  pages •  $5.00 

ROPER. — A  Catechism  of  High-Pressure,  or  Non- Condensing 

Steam-Engines : 

Including  the  Modelling,  Constructing,  and  Management  of  Steanv 
Engines  and  Steam  Boilers.  With  valuable  illustrations.  By  STE- 
PHEN ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixteenth  edition,  revised  and  enlarged. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer's  Handy-Book: 

Containing  a  full  Explanation  of  the  Steam-Engine  Indicator,  and  its 
Use  and  Advantages  to  Engineers  and  Steam  Users.  With  Formulae 
for  Estimating  the  Power  of  all  Classes  of  Steam-Engines ;  also, 
Facts,  Figures,  Questions,  and  Tables  for  Engineers  who  wish  to. 
qualify  Chemselves  for  the  United  States  Navy,  the  Revenue  Service, 
the  Mercantile  Marine,  or  to  take  charge  of  the  Better  Class  of  Sta- 
tionary Steam-Engines.  Sixth  edition.  i6mo.,  690  pages,  tucks, 
gilt  edge $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  : 
Including  the  Modelling,  Construction,   Running,  and  Management 
of  Lane*  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.     With  illustrations.     By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.    Sixth  edition.     12010.,  tv.cks,  gilt  edge. 

#3-50 
ROPER.— Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive  : 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the  Construc- 
tion, Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER.  Eleventh  edition.  i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge  .  #2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines. 
With  illustrations.     By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Fourth  edition, 
I2mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge       .......         $3-50 

ROPER. — Questions  and  Answers  for  Engineers. 

This  little  book  contains  all  the  Questions  that  Engineers  will  be 
asked  when  undergoing  an  Examination  for  the  purpose  of  procuring 
Licenses,  and  they  are  so  plain  that  any  Engineer  or  Fireman  of  or 
dinary  intelligence  may  commit  them  to  memory  in  a  short  time.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Third,  edition  .  .  .  $3.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler. 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     Eighth  edition,  with  illustrations. 
i8mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.OO 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist : 

Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps  and 
Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of  Tools, 
Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  Work,  etc.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  Illus- 
trated by  356  engravings.  Thirteenth  edition,  thoroughly  revised 
and  in  great  part  rewritten.  In  one  vol.,  I2mo.,  439  pages  $2.50 

ROSE. — Mechanical  Drawing  Self-Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of  Drawing 
Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  Practical  Mechanical  Draw 


24         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

ing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple  Geometry  and  Elementary 
Mechanism,  including  Screw  Threads,  Gea-r  Wheels,  Mechanical 
Motions,  Engines  and  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  330  engravings.  8vo.,  313  pages  ....  $4.00 

ROSE. — The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of  tru 
operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement,  and  illustrat- 
ing the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions  by  examples  care* 
fully  selected  from  the  most  recent  and  successful  practice.  By 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  35  engravings  .  $1.00 

ROSS. — The  Blowpipe  in  Chemistry,  Mineralogy  and  Geology: 

Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many  Work- 
ing Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus.     By  LIEUT.- 
COLONEL  W.  A.   Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.      With   120  Illustrations. 
I2mo.        ..........         $2.OO 

SHAW.— Civil  Architecture : 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Building,  con- 
taining  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By  EDWARD  SHAW, 
Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  Gothic  Architecture,  etc. 
By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and  GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper. 
Eleventh  edition.  4to. $7*50 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Loca- 
tion, for  Young  Engineers. 
By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.    I2mo.    Full  bound  pocket-book  form  $2.00 

SLATER. — The  Manual  of  Colors  and  Dye  Wares. 
By  J.  W.  SLATER.     i2mo $3.00 

SLOAN. — American  Houses  : 

A  variety  of  Original  Designs  for  Rural  Buildings.  Illustrated  by 
26  colored  engravings,  with  descriptive  references.  By  SAMUEL 
SLOAN,  Architect.  8vo. $1.50 

SLOAN.— Homestead  Architecture : 

Contain!^  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm-houses,  with 
Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gardening,  Furniture,  etc., 
etc.  THustrated  by  upwards  of  200  engravings.  By  SAMUEL  SLOAN, 
Architect.  8vo.  .........  $3.50 

SLOANE. — Horre  Experiments  in  Science. 
By  T.  O'CoNOR  SLOANE,  E.  M.,  A.  M.,  Fh.  D.     Illustrated  by  91 
engravings.     I2mo.  .         .         .         .         .         .         .         $1.50 

SMEATON. — Builder's  Pocket-Companion  : 

Containing  the  Elements  of  Building,  -Surveying,  and  Architecture ; 
with  Practical  Rules  and  Instructions  connected  with  the  subject. 
By  A.  C.  SMEATON,  Civil  Engineer,  etc.  I2mo.  .  .  $i«5<5 
SMITH. — A  Manual  of  Political  Economy. 
By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.  A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added  a  full 
Index.  I2mo. $12$ 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          25 

SMITH. — Parks  and  Pleasure- Grounds: 

Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public  "Parks,  and 
Gardens.  By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape  Gardener  and 
Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.  I2mo.  ....  $2.00, 

SMITH. — The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk,  Cotton,\ 
Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods ;  containing  nearly  800 
Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Padding;  an<J> 
the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and  Handkerchiefs,  and  the 
various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the  different  styles  of  such  work. 
By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern  Dyer.  I2mo.  .  .  .  $2.00 

SMYTH. — A  Rudimentary  Treatise  on  Coal  and  Coal-Mining. 
By  WARRINGTON  W.  SMYTH,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  G.,  President  R.  G.  S. 
of  Cornwall.  Fifth  edition,  revised  and  corrected.  With  numer- 
ous illustrations.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  $*-7$ 

SNIVELY.— Tables  for  Systematic  Qualitative  Chemical  Anak 

ysis. 
By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.     8vo.         .         .         .         .  •       $1.00 

SNIVELY. — The  Elements  of  Systematic  Qualitative  chemical 

Analysis : 
A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.    By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D.    i6mo. 

$2.00 

STOKES.— The  Cabinet- Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Companion  -. 

Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet  Work ; 
Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work ;  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Stain- 
ing Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc.  Directions  for  Lacker- 
ing, Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to  make  French  Polish,  Glues, 
Cements,  and  Compos:.i'"ns;  with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  work 
men  generally.  Bv  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with 
an  Appendix  upor  /ench  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing, 
etc.,  etc.  I2mo .  $1.25 

STRENGTH  AND  OTHER  PROPERTIES  OF  METALS; 

Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of 
Metals  for  Cannon.  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines  for  Testing 
Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in  service.  By  Officers 
of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S.  Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  War.  Illustrated  by  25  large  steel  plates.  Quarto.  $10.00 

BULLIVAN. — Protection  to  Native  Industry. 
By  Sir  EDWARD  SULLIVAN,  Baronet,  author  of  "  Ten  Chapters  on 
Social  Reforms."     8vo.     .......         $1.00 

SULZ. — A  Treatise  on  Beverages  : 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  instructions  for  Laboratory 
Work,  with  Original  Practical  Recipes  for  all  kinds  of  Carbonated 
Drinks,  Mineral  Waters,  Flavorings.  Extracts,  Syrups,  etc.  By 
CHAS.  HERMAN  SULZ.  Technical  Chemist  and.  Practical  Botfler 
Illustrated  by  428  Engr&viti^s,  8i?<  pp.  £vO  .  ,  $10.00 


26         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRl?  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

SYME. — Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science. 
By  DAVID  SYME.     I2mo.  .  ...        $2.00 

TABLES     SHOWING     THE     WEIGHT     OF     ROUND, 

SQUARE,  AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC., 
By  Measurement.     Cloth •  63 

TAYLOR.— Statistics  of  Coal : 

Including  Mineral  Bituminous  Substances  employed  in  Arts  and 
Manufactures;  with  their  Geographical,  Geological,  and  Commercial 
Distribution  and  Amount  of  Production  and  Consumption  on  the 
American  Continent.  With  Incidental  Statistics  of  the  Iron  Manu- 
facture. By  R.  C.  TAYLOR.  Second  edition,  revised  by  S.  S.  HALDE- 
MAN.  Illustrated  by  five  Maps  and  many  wood  engravings.  8vo., 
cloth *6.oo 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and  the 

Steam -Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for  the  Use  of 
Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM  TEMPLETON,  En- 
gineer.  I2mo.  ....••••  $1.00 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation  of 

Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing.  Elab- 
orated from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING,  Professor 
at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural  Institute,  Modling, 
near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Thoroughly  and  elaborately  edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and 
according  to  the  latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ 
and  DR.  A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.,  815 
pages  .....  .....  $10.00 

THOMAS.— The  Modern  Practice  of  Photography: 

By  R.  W.  THOMAS,  F.  C.  S.    8vo.  ....  25 

THOMPSON. — Political  Economy.     With  Especial  Reference 

to  the  Industrial  History  of  Nations  : 

By  ROBERT  E.  THOMPSON,  M.  A.,  Professor  of  Social  Science  in  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania.  I2mo.  ....  $1.50 

THOMSON.— Freight  Charges  Calculator: 

By  ANDREW  THOMSON,  Freight  Agent.     241110.         .         .         $1.25 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccentric  Turn, 
hig;  also  various  Plates  of  Chucks,  Tools,  and  Instruments;  and 
Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter,  Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and 
Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and  Instructions  for  working  them. 
I2mo $1-25 

TURNING  :   Specimens  of  Fancy  Turning   Executed  on  the 

Hand  or  Foot- Lathe  : 

With  Geometric,  Oval,  and  Eccentric  Chucks,  and  Elliptical  Cutting 
Frame.  By  an  Amateur.  Illustrated  by  30  exquisite  Photographs. 
4to $3.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.          27 

VAILE. — Galvanized-Iron  Cornice-Worker's  Manual : 
Containing  Instructions  in  Laying  out  the  Different  Mitres,  and 
Making  Patterns  for  all  kinds  of  Plain  and  Circular  Work.  Also, 
Tables  of  Weights,  Areas  and  Circumferences  of  Circles,  and  othel 
Matter  calculated  to  Benefit  the  Trade.  By  CHARLES  A.  VAILE. 
Illustrated  by  twenty-one  plates.  4*0 $5-OO 

VILLE.— On  Artificial  Manures  : 

Their  Chemical  Selection  and  Scientific  Application  to  Agriculture, 
A  series  of  Lectures  given  at  the  Experimental  Farm  at  Vincennes, 
during  1867  and  1874-75.  By  M.  GEORGES  VILLE.  Translated  and 
Edited  by  W7ILLIAM  CROOKES,  F.  R.  S.  Illustrated  by  thirty-one 
engravings.  8vo.,  450  pages $6.00 

VILLE. — The  School  of  Chemical  Manures  : 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents.     From 
the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer.    With  Illustrations.     I2mo.  ....         $1.25 

VOGDES. — The  Architect's  and  Builder's  Pocket  -Companion 

and  Price-Book : 

Consisting  of  a  Shoit  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Decimals,  Duo- 
decimals, Geometry  and  Mensuration ;  with  Tables  of  United  States- 
Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strengths,  etc.,  of  Iron,  Wood,  Stone, 
Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quantities  of  Materials  in  given  Sizes 
and  Dimensions  of  Wood,  Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete 
Bills  of  Prices  for  Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  foi 
Computing  and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Paint- 
ing, Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged,  revised. 
and  corrected.  In  one  volume,  368  pages,  full-bound,  pocket-book 

form,  gilt  edges $2.00 

Cloth         .  i.5« 

VAN  CLEVE.— The  English  and  American  Mechanic : 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Over  Three  Thousand  Receipts,  Rules> 
and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic  and  Manufac- 
turer. By  B.  FRANK  VAN  CLEVE.  Illustrated.  500  pp.  I2mo.  $2.00 

WAHNSCHAFFE.— A  Guide  to  the  Scientific  Examination 

of  Soils : 

Comprising  Select  Methods  of  Mechanical  and  Chemical  Analysii 
and  Physical  Investigation.  Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr.  F. 
WAHNSCHAFFE.  With  additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illus- 
trated by  25  engravings.  I2mo.  177  pages  .  .  .  $1.50 

WALL. — Practical  Graining : 

With  Descriptions  of  Colors  Employed  and  Tools  Used.  Illustrated 
by  47  Colored  Plates,  Representing  the  Various  Woods  Used  JB 
Interior  Finishing.  By  WILLIAM  E.  WALL.  8vo.  .  $2.50 

WALTON. — Coal-Mining  Described  and  Illustrated: 

By  THOMAS  H.  WALTON,  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  24  Jargp 
and  elaborate  Plates,  after  Actual  Workings  and  Apparatus.  ,»5.oc 


28         HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

97ARE.— The  Sugar  Beet. 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe,  Varieties 
of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examination,  Soils,  Tillage,  Seeds  and  Sowing, 
Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvesting,  Transportation,  Conserva 
tion,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the  Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIS 
S.  WARE,  C.  E.,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  engravings.  8vo. 

$4.00 

WARN.— The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 

For  Zinc,  Sheet- Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin- Plate  Workers,  etc.  Contain- 
ing a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems ;  also,  Practical  and  Simple 
Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns  required  in  the  different 
branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By  REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical 
Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing 
Instructions  for  Boiler-Making,  Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids, 
Rules  for  Calculating  the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and 
Steel,  Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo.  .  $3.00 

WARNER.— New  Theorems,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  for  the 
Computation  of  Earth-work : 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final  Estimates 
of  Students  in  Engineering,  and  of  Contractors  and  other  non-profes« 
sional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with  an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Prac- 
tical Treatise;  Part  II.  A  Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix. 
Containing  Notes  to  the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I. ;  Explana- 
tions of  the  Construction  of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a 
Treatise  upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
The  whole  illustrated  by  numerous  original  engravings,  comprising 
explanatory  cuts  for  Definitions  and  Problems,  Stereometric  Scales 
and  Diagrams,  and  a  series  of  Lithographic  Drawings  from  Models  i 
Showing  all  the  Combinations  of  Solid  Forms  which  occur  in  Railroad 
Excavations  and  Embankments.  By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining 
and  Mechanical  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  A  new,  revised 
and  improved  edition.  8vo.  ......  $4.00 

WATSON.— A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe  : 

Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all  kinds, 
Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring,  and  French 
Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various  methods  practised  to 
produce  Elaborate  work  with  Dispatch,  and  at  Small  Expense.  By 
EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of  "  The  Modern  Practice  of  American 
Machinists  and  Engineers."  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  $I.$O 

WATSON. — The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and 

Engineers 

Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills,  LatYie 
Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work  generally,  with 
the  most  Economical  Speed  for  the  same ;  the  Results  verified  by 
Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise,  and  on  the  Floor.  Togethe* 


HENRY  CAREY  BA1RD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.  2c 

with  Work«*kop  Management,  Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam 
Engine,  Boilers*,  Gears,  Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON 
Illustrated  by  eighty-six  engravings.  I2mo.  .  .  .  |te-5Q 

WATSON. — The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Weaving 

by  Hand  and  Power  • 

With  Calculations  and  Tables  for  the  Use  of  those  connected  with  the 
Trade.  By  JOHN  WATSON,  Manufacturer  and  Practical  Machine* 
Maker.  Illustrated  by  large  Drawings  of  the  best  Power  Looms, 
8vo.  .  $6.00? 

WATT.— The  Art  of  Soap  Making : 

A  Practical  Hand-book  of  the  Manufacture  of  Hard  and  Soft  Soaps, 
Toilet  Soaps,  etc.,  including  many  New  Processes,  and  a  Chapter  on 
the  Recovery  of  Glycerine  from  Waste  Leys.  By  ALEXANDER 
WATT.  111.  I2mo $3.00 

WEATHERLY.— Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar,  Crys* 
tailizing,  Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods, 

And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  etc.,  in  which  are  explained, 
in  an  easy  and  familiar  manner,  the  various  Methods  of  Manufactur- 
ing every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined  Sugar  Goods,  as  sold  by 
Confectioners  and  others.  I2mo $I.5<1 

WIGHTWICK.— Hints  to  Young  Architects: 
Comprising  Advice  to  those  who,  while  yet  at  school,  are  destined 
to  the  Profession;  to  such  as,  having  passed  their  pupilage,  are  aboul 
to  travel ;  and  to  those  who,  having  completed  their  education,  are 
about  to  practise.  Together  with  a  Model  Specification  involving  a 
great  variety  of  instructive  and  suggestive  matter.  By  GEORGB 
WIGHTWICK,  Architect.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged ;  comprising  Treatises  on  the  Principles  of  Construction 
and  Design.  By  G.  HUSKISSON  GUILLAUME,  Architect.  Numerous 
illustrations.  One  vol.  I2mo.  .  .  .  .  .  .  $2.0C 

WILL. — Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis. 

With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis.  By  Pro 
fessor  HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third  American, 
from  the  eleventh  German  edition.  Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  HlMES^ 
Ph.  D.,  Professor  of  Natural  Science,  Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa 
8vo.  .  $i-5<J 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam  : 

Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation,  and  Explo- 
sion. By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.  Illustrated  8vo. 

$2.50 

WILSON. — A  Treatise  on  Steam  Boilers  : 

Their  Strength,  Construction,  and  Economical  Working.  By  RoBERt 
WILSON.  Illustrated  I2mo $2.50 

W  ILSON. — First  Principles  of  Political  Economy: 
With  Reference  to  Statesmanship  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 
%  Professor  W.  D.  WILSON,  of  the  Cornell  University.     A  new  and 
revised  edition.    I2mo •  $1.50 


30        HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD  &   CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

WOHLER.— A  Hand-Bookof  Mineral  Analysis: 

By  F.  WOHLER,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Gottin- 
gen.  Edited  by  HENRY  B.  NASON,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Renssalaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  Troy,  New  York.  Illustrated. 
I2mo .  $2.50 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Engineers.  1869.  By  S.  W. 
WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  eighteen  large  plates.  8vo.  $2.50 


RECENT   ADDITIONS. 

BRANNT. — Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Sealing- 

Waxes : 

Their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is  added  the 
Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including  the  Preparation  of  Put- 
ties and  of  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Horn,  and  Leather.  By 
WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  39  Engravings,  338  pages. 
i2mo $3.00 

BRANNT — The  Practical  Scourer  and  Garment  Dyer: 

Comprising  Dry  or  Chemical  Cleaning;  the  Art  of  Removing  Stains; 
Fine  Washing ;  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  of  Straw  Hats,  Gloves,  and 
Feathers  of  all  kinds;  Dyeing  of  Worn  Clothes  of  all  fabrics,  in- 
cluding Mixed  Goods,  by  One  Dip;  and  the  Manufacture  of  Soaps 
and  Fluids  for  Cleansing  Purposes.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 
Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Illustrated. 
203  pages.  I2mo. $2.00 

BRANNT.— Petroleum . 

Its  History,  Origin,  Occurrence,  Production,  Physical  and  Chemical 
Constitution,  Technology,  Examination  and  Uses;  Together  with 
the  Occurrence  and  Uses  of  Natural  Gas.  Edited  chiefly  from  the 
German  of  Prof.  Hans  Hoefer  and  Dr.  Alexander  Veith,  by  WM. 
T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  3  Plates  and  284  Engravings.  743  pp. 
8vo.  $7.50 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Vine- 
gar and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit-Wines  : 
Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evaporation; 
Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades,  Catchups,  Pickles, 
Mustards,  etc.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  79  Engravings.  479  pp.  8vo.  $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's    Handy-Book   of  Receipts 
and  Processes : 

Being  a  Collection  of  Chemical  Formulas  and  Practical  Manipula- 
tions for  the  working  of  all  Metals ;  including  the  Decoration  and 
Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  therefrom,  as  well  as  their 
Preservation.  Edited  from  various  sources.  By  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated.  i2mo.  £2.50* 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD   &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE.       3I 

DEITE.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  cf  Per* 

fumery : 

Comprising  directions  for  making  all  kinds  of  Perfumes,  Sachet 
Powders,  Fumigating  Materials,  Dentifrices,  Cosmetics,  etc.,  with  a 
full  account  of  the  Volatile  Oils,  Balsams,  Resins,  and  other  Natural 
and  Artificial  Perfume-substances,  including  the  Manufacture  of 
Fruit  Ethers,  and  tests  of  their  purity.  By  Dr.  C.  DEITE,  assisted 
by  L.  BORCHERT,  F.  EICHBAUM,  E.  KUGLER,  H.  TOEFFNER,  and 
other  experts.  From  the  German,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  28  Engrav- 
ings. 358  pages.  8vo. $3-oo 

EDWARDS. — American    Marine  Engineer,    Theoretical   and 

Practical : 

With  Examples  of  the  latest  and  most  approved  American  Practice. 
By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  85  illustrations.  I2mo.  .  .  $2.50 

EDWARDS. — 900    Examination   Questions  and   Answers: 

For  Engineers  and  Firemen  (Land  and  Marine)  who  desire  to  ob- 
tain a  United   States  Government  or  State  License.     Pocket-book 
form,  gilt  edge  ........         $1.5° 

POSSELT. — Technology  of  Textile  Design  : 
Being  a  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Application  of 
Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics,  with  minute  reference  to  the  latest 
Inventions  for  Weaving.  Containing  also  an  Appendix,  showing 
the  Analysis  and  giving  the  Calculations  necessary  for  the  Manufac. 
ture  of  the  various  Textile  Fabrics.  By  E.  A.  POSSELT,  Head 
Master  Textile  Department,  Pennsylvania  Museum  and  School  of 
Industrial  Art,  Philadelphia,  with  over  1000  illustrations.  293 
pages.  4to $5-oc 

POSSELT. — The  Jacquard  Machine  Analysed  and  Explained: 
With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E.  A. 
POSSELT.  With  230  illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams.  127  pp. 
4to.  . $3.00 

POSSELT.— The  Structure  of  Fibres,  Yarns  and  Fabrics: 
Being  a  Practical  Treatise  for  the  Use  of  all  Persons  Employed  in 
the  Manufacture  of  Textile  Fabrics,  containing  a  Description  of  the 
Growth  and  Manipulation  of  Cotton,  Wool,  Worsted,  Silk  Flax, 
Jute,  Ramie,  China  Grass  and  Hemp,  and  Dealing  with  all  Manu- 
facturers' Calculations  for  Every  Class  of  Material,  also  Giving 
Minute  Details  for  the  Structure  of  all  kinds  of  Textile  Fabrics,  and 
an  Appendix  of  Arithmetic,  specially  adapted  for  Textile  Purposes. 
By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  Over  400  Illustrations,  quarto.  .  $10.00 

RICH. — Artistic  Horse-Shoeing: 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods  of 
Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure  Different 
Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  for  the  Correction  of  Faulty  Action  in 
Trotters.  By  GEORGE  E.  RICH.  62  Illustrations.  153  pages. 
I2mo 1.00 


32       HENRY   CAREY   BAIRD   &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE. 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Blacksmithing : 

A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by  Skilled 
Workmen  to  the  columns  of  "  The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright," 
and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of  Blacksmithing,  from  the 
Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the  Most  Complex  Forgings. 
Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T.  RICHARDSON. 

Vol.1.  210  Illustrations.  224  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  II.  230  Illustrations.  262  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  III.  390  Illustrations.  307  pages.  I2mo.  .  .  $1.00 
Vol.  IV.  226  Illustrations.  276  pages.  I2mo.  ,  .  $1.00 

RICHARDSON.— The  Practical  Horseshoer: 
Being  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Horseshoeing  in  all  its  Branches 
which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  columns  of  "  The 
Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.     Compiled  and  edited  by  M.  T. 
RICHARDSON.     174  illustrations $1.00 

ROPER. — Instructions    and    Suggestions    for   Engineers   and 

Firemen : 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     i8mo.     Morocco        .        $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     I2mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.         $2.00 

ROPER. — The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book: 

Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on  which 
the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  Based.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER, 
Engineer.  160  illustrations,  363  pages.  i8mo.,  tuck  .  $3.00 

ROSE. — Modern  Steam -Engines: 

An  Elementary  Treatise  upon  the  Steam-Engine,  written  in  Plain 
language ;  for  Use  in  the  Workshop  as  well  as  in  the  Drawing  Office, 
Giving  Full  Explanations  of  the  Construction  of  Modern  Stearrw 
Engines :  Including  Diagrams  showing  their  Actual  operation.  To« 
gether  with  Complete  but  Simple  Explanations  of  the  operations  of 
Various  Kinds  of  Valves,  Valve  Motions,  and  Link  Motions,  etc., 
thereby  Enabling  the  Ordinary  Engineer  to  clearly  Understand  the 
Principles  Involved  in  their  Construction  and  Use,  and  to  Plot  out 
their  Movements  upon  the  Drawing  Board.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  M.  E. 
Illustrated  by  422  engravings.  Revised.  358  pp.  .  .  $6.00 

ROSE. — Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination,  for  the 
Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  Inspectors;  and 
embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations  necessary  in  Designing 
or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  73  engravings.  250  pages.  8vo $2.50 

SCHRIBER. — The  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 
A  Concise  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages,  Wagons, 
and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the  Various  Branches, 
including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornamenting,  Striping,  Varnishing, 
and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Recipes  for  Mixing  Color*.  73  Illus- 
trations. 177  pp.  I2mo.  .  .  ....  $1.00 


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